Stereotypes are subjective constructs that are mediated by the cultural context in which they are viewed. Successfully modeling them thus also requires cultural competence. When using large language models (LLMs) for stereotype-related tasks, such as their detection, it is therefore crucial that models can access relevant cultural knowledge and adjust responses accordingly. Since LLMs have shown disparities in what cultural knowledge is available to them, their capacity regarding stereotypes may also be disparate across languages and cultural contexts (e.g., for non-English languages or for non-US contexts). In this paper, we systematically investigate the effectiveness of LLMs for culture-specific stereotype detection across three factors: (1) the prompting language, (2) the instruction tuning language, and (3) the fine-tuning dataset size. We conduct experiments for US, Dutch, and Chinese cultural contexts. Our results suggest that LLMs do not reliably account for cultural contexts and overpredict the presence of stereotypes. Non-English prompts seem to improve consideration of cultural context and thus lead to more effective predictions. Moreover, we find that additional instruction tuning reduces false-positive rates and that training data size moderates detection effectiveness non-monotonically.

Detecting and mitigating harmful biases in modern language models are widely recognized as crucial, open problems. In this paper, we take a step back and investigate how language models come to be biased in the first place. We use a relatively small language model, using the LSTM architecture trained on an English Wikipedia corpus. With full access to the data and to the model parameters as they change during every step while training, we can map in detail how the representation of gender develops, what patterns in the dataset drive this, and how the model’s internal state relates to the bias in a downstream task (semantic textual similarity).We find that the representation of gender is dynamic and identify different phases during training. Furthermore, we show that gender information is represented increasingly locally in the input embeddings of the model and that, as a consequence, debiasing these can be effective in reducing the downstream bias. Monitoring the training dynamics, allows us to detect an asymmetry in how the female and male gender are represented in the input embeddings. This is important, as it may cause naive mitigation strategies to introduce new undesirable biases. We discuss the relevance of the findings for mitigation strategies more generally and the prospects of generalizing our methods to larger language models, the Transformer architecture, other languages and other undesirable biases.