Ken Koedinger
2025
Beyond Agreement: Rethinking Ground Truth in Educational AI Annotation
Danielle R Thomas
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Conrad Borchers
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Ken Koedinger
Proceedings of the Artificial Intelligence in Measurement and Education Conference (AIME-Con): Full Papers
Humans are biased, inconsistent, and yet we keep trusting them to define “ground truth.” This paper questions the overreliance on inter-rater reliability in educational AI and proposes a multidimensional approach leveraging expert-based approaches and close-the-loop validity to build annotations that reflect impact, not just agreement. It’s time we do better.