Zero-shot learning aims to recognize unseen objects using their semantic representations. Most existing works use visual attributes labeled by humans, not suitable for large-scale applications. In this paper, we revisit the use of documents as semantic representations. We argue that documents like Wikipedia pages contain rich visual information, which however can easily be buried by the vast amount of non-visual sentences. To address this issue, we propose a semi-automatic mechanism for visual sentence extraction that leverages the document section headers and the clustering structure of visual sentences. The extracted visual sentences, after a novel weighting scheme to distinguish similar classes, essentially form semantic representations like visual attributes but need much less human effort. On the ImageNet dataset with over 10,000 unseen classes, our representations lead to a 64% relative improvement against the commonly used ones.

Visual question answering (VQA) is challenging not only because the model has to handle multi-modal information, but also because it is just so hard to collect sufficient training examples — there are too many questions one can ask about an image. As a result, a VQA model trained solely on human-annotated examples could easily over-fit specific question styles or image contents that are being asked, leaving the model largely ignorant about the sheer diversity of questions. Existing methods address this issue primarily by introducing an auxiliary task such as visual grounding, cycle consistency, or debiasing. In this paper, we take a drastically different approach. We found that many of the “unknowns” to the learned VQA model are indeed “known” in the dataset implicitly. For instance, questions asking about the same object in different images are likely paraphrases; the number of detected or annotated objects in an image already provides the answer to the “how many” question, even if the question has not been annotated for that image. Building upon these insights, we present a simple data augmentation pipeline SimpleAug to turn this “known” knowledge into training examples for VQA. We show that these augmented examples can notably improve the learned VQA models’ performance, not only on the VQA-CP dataset with language prior shifts but also on the VQA v2 dataset without such shifts. Our method further opens up the door to leverage weakly-labeled or unlabeled images in a principled way to enhance VQA models. Our code and data are publicly available at https://github.com/heendung/simpleAUG.

Visual question answering (Visual QA) has attracted a lot of attention lately, seen essentially as a form of (visual) Turing test that artificial intelligence should strive to achieve. In this paper, we study a crucial component of this task: how can we design good datasets for the task? We focus on the design of multiple-choice based datasets where the learner has to select the right answer from a set of candidate ones including the target (i.e., the correct one) and the decoys (i.e., the incorrect ones). Through careful analysis of the results attained by state-of-the-art learning models and human annotators on existing datasets, we show that the design of the decoy answers has a significant impact on how and what the learning models learn from the datasets. In particular, the resulting learner can ignore the visual information, the question, or both while still doing well on the task. Inspired by this, we propose automatic procedures to remedy such design deficiencies. We apply the procedures to re-construct decoy answers for two popular Visual QA datasets as well as to create a new Visual QA dataset from the Visual Genome project, resulting in the largest dataset for this task. Extensive empirical studies show that the design deficiencies have been alleviated in the remedied datasets and the performance on them is likely a more faithful indicator of the difference among learning models. The datasets are released and publicly available via http://www.teds.usc.edu/website_vqa/.