Annotation tools are increasingly only steps in a larger process into which they need to be integrated, for instance by calling out to web services for labeling support or importing documents from external sources. This requires certain capabilities that annotation tools need to support in order to keep up. Here, we define the respective requirements and how popular annotation tools support them. As a demonstration for how these can be implemented, we adapted INCEpTION, a semantic annotation platform offering intelligent assistance and knowledge management. For instance, support for a range of APIs has been added to INCEpTION through which it can be controlled and which allow it to interact with external services such as authorization services, crowdsourcing platforms, terminology services or machine learning services. Additionally, we introduce new capabilities that allow custom rendering of XML documents and even the ability to add new JavaScript-based editor plugins, thereby making INCEpTION usable in an even wider range of annotation tasks.

Data quality is crucial for training accurate, unbiased, and trustworthy machine learning models as well as for their correct evaluation. Recent work, however, has shown that even popular datasets used to train and evaluate state-of-the-art models contain a non-negligible amount of erroneous annotations, biases, or artifacts. While practices and guidelines regarding dataset creation projects exist, to our knowledge, large-scale analysis has yet to be performed on how quality management is conducted when creating natural language datasets and whether these recommendations are followed. Therefore, we first survey and summarize recommended quality management practices for dataset creation as described in the literature and provide suggestions for applying them. Then, we compile a corpus of 591 scientific publications introducing text datasets and annotate it for quality-related aspects, such as annotator management, agreement, adjudication, or data validation. Using these annotations, we then analyze how quality management is conducted in practice. A majority of the annotated publications apply good or excellent quality management. However, we deem the effort of 30% of the studies as only subpar. Our analysis also shows common errors, especially when using inter-annotator agreement and computing annotation error rates.

Many Natural Language Processing (NLP) systems use annotated corpora for training and evaluation. However, labeled data is often costly to obtain and scaling annotation projects is difficult, which is why annotation tasks are often outsourced to paid crowdworkers. Citizen Science is an alternative to crowdsourcing that is relatively unexplored in the context of NLP. To investigate whether and how well Citizen Science can be applied in this setting, we conduct an exploratory study into engaging different groups of volunteers in Citizen Science for NLP by re-annotating parts of a pre-existing crowdsourced dataset. Our results show that this can yield high-quality annotations and at- tract motivated volunteers, but also requires considering factors such as scalability, participation over time, and legal and ethical issues. We summarize lessons learned in the form of guidelines and provide our code and data to aid future work on Citizen Science.

Entity linking (EL) is concerned with disambiguating entity mentions in a text against knowledge bases (KB). To quickly annotate texts with EL even in low-resource domains and noisy text, we present a novel Human-In-The-Loop EL approach. We show that it greatly outperforms a strong baseline in simulation. In a user study, annotation time is reduced by 35 % compared to annotating without interactive support; users report that they strongly prefer our system over ones without. An open-source and ready-to-use implementation based on the text annotation platform is made available.

Entity linking (EL) is concerned with disambiguating entity mentions in a text against knowledge bases (KB). It is crucial in a considerable number of fields like humanities, technical writing and biomedical sciences to enrich texts with semantics and discover more knowledge. The use of EL in such domains requires handling noisy texts, low resource settings and domain-specific KBs. Existing approaches are mostly inappropriate for this, as they depend on training data. However, in the above scenario, there exists hardly annotated data, and it needs to be created from scratch. We therefore present a novel domain-agnostic Human-In-The-Loop annotation approach: we use recommenders that suggest potential concepts and adaptive candidate ranking, thereby speeding up the overall annotation process and making it less tedious for users. We evaluate our ranking approach in a simulation on difficult texts and show that it greatly outperforms a strong baseline in ranking accuracy. In a user study, the annotation speed improves by 35% compared to annotating without interactive support; users report that they strongly prefer our system. An open-source and ready-to-use implementation based on the text annotation platform INCEpTION (https://inception-project.github.io) is made available.

This paper describes an ecosystem consisting of three independent text annotation platforms. To demonstrate their ability to work in concert, we illustrate how to use them to address an interactive domain adaptation task in biomedical entity recognition. The platforms and the approach are in general domain-independent and can be readily applied to other areas of science.

We introduce INCEpTION, a new annotation platform for tasks including interactive and semantic annotation (e.g., concept linking, fact linking, knowledge base population, semantic frame annotation). These tasks are very time consuming and demanding for annotators, especially when knowledge bases are used. We address these issues by developing an annotation platform that incorporates machine learning capabilities which actively assist and guide annotators. The platform is both generic and modular. It targets a range of research domains in need of semantic annotation, such as digital humanities, bioinformatics, or linguistics. INCEpTION is publicly available as open-source software.

Annotating entity mentions and linking them to a knowledge resource are essential tasks in many domains. It disambiguates mentions, introduces cross-document coreferences, and the resources contribute extra information, e.g. taxonomic relations. Such tasks benefit from text annotation tools that integrate a search which covers the text, the annotations, as well as the knowledge resource. However, to the best of our knowledge, no current tools integrate knowledge-supported search as well as entity linking support. We address this gap by introducing knowledge-supported search functionality into the INCEpTION text annotation platform. In our approach, cross-document references are created by linking entity mentions to a knowledge base in the form of a structured hierarchical vocabulary. The resulting annotations are then indexed to enable fast and yet complex queries taking into account the text, the annotations, and the vocabulary structure.

This paper describes an application system aimed to help lexicographers in the extraction of example sentences for a given headword based on its different senses. The tool uses classification and clustering methods and incorporates user feedback to refine its results.

For decades, most self-respecting linguistic engineering initiatives have designed and implemented custom representations for various layers of, for example, morphological, syntactic, and semantic analysis. Despite occasional efforts at harmonization or even standardization, our field today is blessed with a multitude of ways of encoding and exchanging linguistic annotations of these types, both at the levels of ‘abstract syntax’, naming choices, and of course file formats. To a large degree, it is possible to work within and across design plurality by conversion, and often there may be good reasons for divergent design reflecting differences in use. However, it is likely that some abstract commonalities across choices of representation are obscured by more superficial differences, and conversely there is no obvious procedure to tease apart what actually constitute contentful vs. mere technical divergences. In this study, we seek to conceptually align three representations for common types of morpho-syntactic analysis, pinpoint what in our view constitute contentful differences, and reflect on the underlying principles and specific requirements that led to individual choices. We expect that a more in-depth understanding of these choices across designs may led to increased harmonization, or at least to more informed design of future representations.

We introduce the third major release of WebAnno, a generic web-based annotation tool for distributed teams. New features in this release focus on semantic annotation tasks (e.g. semantic role labelling or event annotation) and allow the tight integration of semantic annotations with syntactic annotations. In particular, we introduce the concept of slot features, a novel constraint mechanism that allows modelling the interaction between semantic and syntactic annotations, as well as a new annotation user interface. The new features were developed and used in an annotation project for semantic roles on German texts. The paper briefly introduces this project and reports on experiences performing annotations with the new tool. On a comparative evaluation, our tool reaches significant speedups over WebAnno 2 for a semantic annotation task.

Most tools for natural language processing today are based on machine learning and come with pre-trained models. In addition, third-parties provide pre-trained models for popular NLP tools. The predictive power and accuracy of these tools depends on the quality of these models. Downstream researchers often base their results on pre-trained models instead of training their own. Consequently, pre-trained models are an essential resource to our community. However, to be best of our knowledge, no systematic study of pre-trained models has been conducted so far. This paper reports on the analysis of 274 pre-models for six NLP tools and four potential causes of problems: encoding, tokenization, normalization and change over time. The analysis is implemented in the open source tool Model Investigator. Our work 1) allows model consumers to better assess whether a model is suitable for their task, 2) enables tool and model creators to sanity-check their models before distributing them, and 3) enables improvements in tool interoperability by performing automatic adjustments of normalization or other pre-processing based on the models used.

We describe the construction of GLASS, a newly sense-annotated version of the German lexical substitution data set used at the GermEval 2015: LexSub shared task. Using the two annotation layers, we conduct the first known empirical study of the relationship between manually applied word senses and lexical substitutions. We find that synonymy and hypernymy/hyponymy are the only semantic relations directly linking targets to their substitutes, and that substitutes in the target’s hypernymy/hyponymy taxonomy closely align with the synonyms of a single GermaNet synset. Despite this, these substitutes account for a minority of those provided by the annotators. The results of our analysis accord with those of a previous study on English-language data (albeit with automatically induced word senses), leading us to suspect that the sense―substitution relations we discovered may be of a universal nature. We also tentatively conclude that relatively cheap lexical substitution annotations can be used as a knowledge source for automatic WSD. Also introduced in this paper is Ubyline, the web application used to produce the sense annotations. Ubyline presents an intuitive user interface optimized for annotating lexical sample data, and is readily adaptable to sense inventories other than GermaNet.