Large language models (LLMs) have proficiently solved a broad range of tasks with their rich knowledge but often struggle with logical reasoning. To foster the research on logical reasoning, many benchmarks have been proposed so far. However, most of these benchmarks are limited to English, hindering the evaluation of LLMs specialized for each language. To address this, we propose **JFLD** (**J**apanese **F**ormal **L**ogic **D**eduction), a deductive reasoning benchmark for Japanese. JFLD assess whether LLMs can generate logical steps to (dis-)prove a given hypothesis based on a given set of facts. Its key features are assessing pure logical reasoning abilities isolated from knowledge and assessing various reasoning rules. We evaluate various Japanese LLMs and see that they are still poor at logical reasoning, thus highlighting a substantial need for future research.

This paper explains the participation of team Hitachi to SemEval-2023 Task 3 “Detecting the genre, the framing, and the persuasion techniques in online news in a multi-lingual setup.” Based on the multilingual, multi-task nature of the task and the low-resource setting, we investigated different cross-lingual and multi-task strategies for training the pretrained language models. Through extensive experiments, we found that (a) cross-lingual/multi-task training, and (b) collecting an external balanced dataset, can benefit the genre and framing detection. We constructed ensemble models from the results and achieved the highest macro-averaged F1 scores in Italian and Russian genre categorization subtasks.

This paper describes our participation in SemEval-2023 Task 4, ValueEval: Identification of Human Values behind Arguments. The aim of this task is to identify whether or not an input text supports each of the 20 pre-defined human values. Previous work on human value detection has shown the effectiveness of a sequence classification approach using BERT. However, little is known about what type of task formulation is suitable for the task. To this end, this paper explores various task formulations, including sequence classification, question answering, and question answering with chain-of-thought prompting and evaluates their performances on the shared task dataset. Experiments show that a zero-shot approach is not as effective as other methods, and there is no one approach that is optimal in every scenario. Our analysis also reveals that utilizing the descriptions of human values can help to improve performance.

This paper investigates the effect of tokenizers on the downstream performance of pretrained language models (PLMs) in scriptio continua languages where no explicit spaces exist between words, using Japanese as a case study. The tokenizer for such languages often consists of a morphological analyzer and a subword tokenizer, requiring us to conduct a comprehensive study of all possible pairs. However, previous studies lack this comprehensiveness. We therefore train extensive sets of tokenizers, build a PLM using each, and measure the downstream performance on a wide range of tasks. Our results demonstrate that each downstream task has a different optimal morphological analyzer, and that it is better to use Byte-Pair-Encoding or Unigram rather than WordPiece as a subword tokenizer, regardless of the type of task.

Masked language modeling (MLM) is a widely used self-supervised pretraining objective, where a model needs to predict an original token that is replaced with a mask given contexts. Although simpler and computationally efficient pretraining objectives, e.g., predicting the first character of a masked token, have recently shown comparable results to MLM, no objectives with a masking scheme actually outperform it in downstream tasks. Motivated by the assumption that their lack of complexity plays a vital role in the degradation, we validate whether more complex masked objectives can achieve better results and investigate how much complexity they should have to perform comparably to MLM. Our results using GLUE, SQuAD, and Universal Dependencies benchmarks demonstrate that more complicated objectives tend to show better downstream results with at least half of the MLM complexity needed to perform comparably to MLM. Finally, we discuss how we should pretrain a model using a masked objective from the task complexity perspective.

One of the challenges in text generation is to control text generation as intended by the user. Previous studies proposed specifying the keywords that should be included in the generated text. However, this approach is insufficient to generate text that reflect the user’s intent. For example, placing an important keyword at the beginning of the text would help attract the reader’s attention; however, existing methods do not enable such flexible control. In this paper, we tackle a novel task of controlling not only keywords but also the position of each keyword in the text generation. To this end, we propose a task-independent method that uses special tokens to control the relative position of keywords. Experimental results on summarization and story generation tasks show that the proposed method can control keywords and their positions. The experimental results also demonstrate that controlling the keyword positions can generate summary texts that are closer to the user’s intent than baseline.

Machine reading comprehension (MRC) is a task for question answering that finds answers to questions from documents of knowledge. Most studies on the domain adaptation of MRC require documents describing knowledge of the target domain. However, it is sometimes difficult to prepare such documents. The goal of this study was to transfer an MRC model to another domain without documents in an unsupervised manner. Therefore, unlike previous studies, we propose a domain-adaptation framework of MRC under the assumption that the only available data in the target domain are human conversations between a user asking questions and an expert answering the questions. The framework consists of three processes: (1) training an MRC model on the source domain, (2) converting conversations into documents using document generation (DG), a task we developed for retrieving important information from several human conversations and converting it to an abstractive document text, and (3) transferring the MRC model to the target domain with unsupervised domain adaptation. To the best of our knowledge, our research is the first to use conversation data to train MRC models in an unsupervised manner. We show that the MRC model successfully obtains question-answering ability from conversations in the target domain.

In this paper, we describe our system for SemEval-2022 Task 2: Multilingual Idiomaticity Detection and Sentence Embedding. The task aims at detecting idiomaticity in an input sequence (Subtask A) and modeling representation of sentences that contain potential idiomatic multiword expressions (MWEs) (Subtask B) in three languages. We focus on the zero-shot setting of Subtask A and propose two span-based idiomaticity classification methods: MWE span-based classification and idiomatic MWE span prediction-based classification. We use several cross-lingual pre-trained language models (InfoXLM, XLM-R, and others) as our backbone network. Our best-performing system, fine-tuned with the span-based idiomaticity classification, ranked fifth in the zero-shot setting of Subtask A and exhibited a macro F1 score of 0.7466.

This paper describes our participation in SemEval-2022 Task 10, a structured sentiment analysis. In this task, we have to parse opinions considering both structure- and context-dependent subjective aspects, which is different from typical dependency parsing. Some of the major parser types have recently been used for semantic and syntactic parsing, while it is still unknown which type can capture structured sentiments well due to their subjective aspects. To this end, we compared two different types of state-of-the-art parser, namely graph-based and seq2seq-based. Our in-depth analyses suggest that, even though graph-based parser generally outperforms the seq2seq-based one, with strong pre-trained language models both parsers can essentially output acceptable and reasonable predictions. The analyses highlight that the difficulty derived from subjective aspects in structured sentiment analysis remains an essential challenge.