Other Workshops and Events (2021)

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bib (full) Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Domain Adaptation for NLP

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Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Domain Adaptation for NLP
Eyal Ben-David | Shay Cohen | Ryan McDonald | Barbara Plank | Roi Reichart | Guy Rotman | Yftah Ziser

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Multidomain Pretrained Language Models for Green NLP
Antonis Maronikolakis | Hinrich Schütze

When tackling a task in a given domain, it has been shown that adapting a model to the domain using raw text data before training on the supervised task improves performance versus solely training on the task. The downside is that a lot of domain data is required and if we want to tackle tasks in n domains, we require n models each adapted on domain data before task learning. Storing and using these models separately can be prohibitive for low-end devices. In this paper we show that domain adaptation can be generalised to cover multiple domains. Specifically, a single model can be trained across various domains at the same time with minimal drop in performance, even when we use less data and resources. Thus, instead of training multiple models, we can train a single multidomain model saving on computational resources and training time.

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Pseudo-Label Guided Unsupervised Domain Adaptation of Contextual Embeddings
Tianyu Chen | Shaohan Huang | Furu Wei | Jianxin Li

Contextual embedding models such as BERT can be easily fine-tuned on labeled samples to create a state-of-the-art model for many downstream tasks. However, the fine-tuned BERT model suffers considerably from unlabeled data when applied to a different domain. In unsupervised domain adaptation, we aim to train a model that works well on a target domain when provided with labeled source samples and unlabeled target samples. In this paper, we propose a pseudo-label guided method for unsupervised domain adaptation. Two models are fine-tuned on labeled source samples as pseudo labeling models. To learn representations for the target domain, one of those models is adapted by masked language modeling from the target domain. Then those models are used to assign pseudo-labels to target samples. We train the final model with those samples. We evaluate our method on named entity segmentation and sentiment analysis tasks. These experiments show that our approach outperforms baseline methods.

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Conditional Adversarial Networks for Multi-Domain Text Classification
Yuan Wu | Diana Inkpen | Ahmed El-Roby

In this paper, we propose conditional adversarial networks (CANs), a framework that explores the relationship between the shared features and the label predictions to impose stronger discriminability to the learned features, for multi-domain text classification (MDTC). The proposed CAN introduces a conditional domain discriminator to model the domain variance in both the shared feature representations and the class-aware information simultaneously, and adopts entropy conditioning to guarantee the transferability of the shared features. We provide theoretical analysis for the CAN framework, showing that CAN’s objective is equivalent to minimizing the total divergence among multiple joint distributions of shared features and label predictions. Therefore, CAN is a theoretically sound adversarial network that discriminates over multiple distributions. Evaluation results on two MDTC benchmarks show that CAN outperforms prior methods. Further experiments demonstrate that CAN has a good ability to generalize learned knowledge to unseen domains.

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The impact of domain-specific representations on BERT-based multi-domain spoken language understanding
Judith Gaspers | Quynh Do | Tobias Röding | Melanie Bradford

This paper provides the first experimental study on the impact of using domain-specific representations on a BERT-based multi-task spoken language understanding (SLU) model for multi-domain applications. Our results on a real-world dataset covering three languages indicate that by using domain-specific representations learned adversarially, model performance can be improved across all of the three SLU subtasks domain classification, intent classification and slot filling. Gains are particularly large for domains with limited training data.

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Bridging the gap between supervised classification and unsupervised topic modelling for social-media assisted crisis management
Mikael Brunila | Rosie Zhao | Andrei Mircea | Sam Lumley | Renee Sieber

Social media such as Twitter provide valuable information to crisis managers and affected people during natural disasters. Machine learning can help structure and extract information from the large volume of messages shared during a crisis; however, the constantly evolving nature of crises makes effective domain adaptation essential. Supervised classification is limited by unchangeable class labels that may not be relevant to new events, and unsupervised topic modelling by insufficient prior knowledge. In this paper, we bridge the gap between the two and show that BERT embeddings finetuned on crisis-related tweet classification can effectively be used to adapt to a new crisis, discovering novel topics while preserving relevant classes from supervised training, and leveraging bidirectional self-attention to extract topic keywords. We create a dataset of tweets from a snowstorm to evaluate our method’s transferability to new crises, and find that it outperforms traditional topic models in both automatic, and human evaluations grounded in the needs of crisis managers. More broadly, our method can be used for textual domain adaptation where the latent classes are unknown but overlap with known classes from other domains.

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Challenges in Annotating and Parsing Spoken, Code-switched, Frisian-Dutch Data
Anouck Braggaar | Rob van der Goot

While high performance have been obtained for high-resource languages, performance on low-resource languages lags behind. In this paper we focus on the parsing of the low-resource language Frisian. We use a sample of code-switched, spontaneously spoken data, which proves to be a challenging setup. We propose to train a parser specifically tailored towards the target domain, by selecting instances from multiple treebanks. Specifically, we use Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA), with word and character N-grams. We use a deep biaffine parser initialized with mBERT. The best single source treebank (nl_alpino) resulted in an LAS of 54.7 whereas our data selection outperformed the single best transfer treebank and led to 55.6 LAS on the test data. Additional experiments consisted of removing diacritics from our Frisian data, creating more similar training data by cropping sentences and running our best model using XLM-R. These experiments did not lead to a better performance.

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Genres, Parsers, and BERT: The Interaction Between Parsers and BERT Models in Cross-Genre Constituency Parsing in English and Swedish
Daniel Dakota

Genre and domain are often used interchangeably, but are two different properties of a text. Successful parser adaptation requires both cross-domain and cross-genre sensitivity (Rehbein and Bildhauer, 2017). While the impact domain differences have on parser performance degradation is more easily measurable in respect to lexical differences, impact of genre differences can be more nuanced. With the predominance of pre-trained language models (LMs; e.g. BERT (Devlin et al., 2019)), there are now additional complexities in developing cross-genre sensitive models due to the infusion of linguistic characteristics derived from, usually, a third genre. We perform a systematic set of experiments using two neural constituency parsers to examine how different parsers behave in combination with different BERT models with varying source and target genres in English and Swedish. We find that there is extensive difficulty in predicting the best source due to the complex interactions between genres, parsers, and LMs. Additionally, the influence of the data used to derive the underlying BERT model heavily influences how best to create more robust and effective cross-genre parsing models.

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Cross-Lingual Transfer with MAML on Trees
Jezabel Garcia | Federica Freddi | Jamie McGowan | Tim Nieradzik | Feng-Ting Liao | Ye Tian | Da-shan Shiu | Alberto Bernacchia

In meta-learning, the knowledge learned from previous tasks is transferred to new ones, but this transfer only works if tasks are related. Sharing information between unrelated tasks might hurt performance, and it is unclear how to transfer knowledge across tasks that have a hierarchical structure. Our research extends a meta-learning model, MAML, by exploiting hierarchical task relationships. Our algorithm, TreeMAML, adapts the model to each task with a few gradient steps, but the adaptation follows the hierarchical tree structure: in each step, gradients are pooled across tasks clusters and subsequent steps follow down the tree. We also implement a clustering algorithm that generates the tasks tree without previous knowledge of the task structure, allowing us to make use of implicit relationships between the tasks. We show that TreeMAML successfully trains natural language processing models for cross-lingual Natural Language Inference by taking advantage of the language phylogenetic tree. This result is useful since most languages in the world are under-resourced and the improvement on cross-lingual transfer allows the internationalization of NLP models.

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Addressing Zero-Resource Domains Using Document-Level Context in Neural Machine Translation
Dario Stojanovski | Alexander Fraser

Achieving satisfying performance in machine translation on domains for which there is no training data is challenging. Traditional supervised domain adaptation is not suitable for addressing such zero-resource domains because it relies on in-domain parallel data. We show that when in-domain parallel data is not available, access to document-level context enables better capturing of domain generalities compared to only having access to a single sentence. Having access to more information provides a more reliable domain estimation. We present two document-level Transformer models which are capable of using large context sizes and we compare these models against strong Transformer baselines. We obtain improvements for the two zero-resource domains we study. We additionally provide an analysis where we vary the amount of context and look at the case where in-domain data is available.

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MultiReQA: A Cross-Domain Evaluation forRetrieval Question Answering Models
Mandy Guo | Yinfei Yang | Daniel Cer | Qinlan Shen | Noah Constant

Retrieval question answering (ReQA) is the task of retrieving a sentence-level answer to a question from an open corpus (Ahmad et al.,2019).This dataset paper presents MultiReQA, a new multi-domain ReQA evaluation suite composed of eight retrieval QA tasks drawn from publicly available QA datasets. We explore systematic retrieval based evaluation and transfer learning across domains over these datasets using a number of strong base-lines including two supervised neural models, based on fine-tuning BERT and USE-QA models respectively, as well as a surprisingly effective information retrieval baseline, BM25. Five of these tasks contain both training and test data, while three contain test data only. Performing cross training on the five tasks with training data shows that while a general model covering all domains is achievable, the best performance is often obtained by training exclusively on in-domain data.

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Domain adaptation in practice: Lessons from a real-world information extraction pipeline
Timothy Miller | Egoitz Laparra | Steven Bethard

Advances in transfer learning and domain adaptation have raised hopes that once-challenging NLP tasks are ready to be put to use for sophisticated information extraction needs. In this work, we describe an effort to do just that – combining state-of-the-art neural methods for negation detection, document time relation extraction, and aspectual link prediction, with the eventual goal of extracting drug timelines from electronic health record text. We train on the THYME colon cancer corpus and test on both the THYME brain cancer corpus and an internal corpus, and show that performance of the combined systems is unacceptable despite good performance of individual systems. Although domain adaptation shows improvements on each individual system, the model selection problem is a barrier to improving overall pipeline performance.

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BERTologiCoMix: How does Code-Mixing interact with Multilingual BERT?
Sebastin Santy | Anirudh Srinivasan | Monojit Choudhury

Models such as mBERT and XLMR have shown success in solving Code-Mixed NLP tasks even though they were not exposed to such text during pretraining. Code-Mixed NLP models have relied on using synthetically generated data along with naturally occurring data to improve their performance. Finetuning mBERT on such data improves it’s code-mixed performance, but the benefits of using the different types of Code-Mixed data aren’t clear. In this paper, we study the impact of finetuning with different types of code-mixed data and outline the changes that occur to the model during such finetuning. Our findings suggest that using naturally occurring code-mixed data brings in the best performance improvement after finetuning and that finetuning with any type of code-mixed text improves the responsivity of it’s attention heads to code-mixed text inputs.

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Locality Preserving Loss: Neighbors that Live together, Align together
Ashwinkumar Ganesan | Francis Ferraro | Tim Oates

We present a locality preserving loss (LPL) that improves the alignment between vector space embeddings while separating uncorrelated representations. Given two pretrained embedding manifolds, LPL optimizes a model to project an embedding and maintain its local neighborhood while aligning one manifold to another. This reduces the overall size of the dataset required to align the two in tasks such as crosslingual word alignment. We show that the LPL-based alignment between input vector spaces acts as a regularizer, leading to better and consistent accuracy than the baseline, especially when the size of the training set is small. We demonstrate the effectiveness of LPL-optimized alignment on semantic text similarity (STS), natural language inference (SNLI), multi-genre language inference (MNLI) and cross-lingual word alignment (CLA) showing consistent improvements, finding up to 16% improvement over our baseline in lower resource settings.

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On the Hidden Negative Transfer in Sequential Transfer Learning for Domain Adaptation from News to Tweets
Sara Meftah | Nasredine Semmar | Youssef Tamaazousti | Hassane Essafi | Fatiha Sadat

Transfer Learning has been shown to be a powerful tool for Natural Language Processing (NLP) and has outperformed the standard supervised learning paradigm, as it takes benefit from the pre-learned knowledge. Nevertheless, when transfer is performed between less related domains, it brings a negative transfer, i.e. hurts the transfer performance. In this research, we shed light on the hidden negative transfer occurring when transferring from the News domain to the Tweets domain, through quantitative and qualitative analysis. Our experiments on three NLP taks: Part-Of-Speech tagging, Chunking and Named Entity recognition, reveal interesting insights.

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Trajectory-Based Meta-Learning for Out-Of-Vocabulary Word Embedding Learning
Gordon Buck | Andreas Vlachos

Word embedding learning methods require a large number of occurrences of a word to accurately learn its embedding. However, out-of-vocabulary (OOV) words which do not appear in the training corpus emerge frequently in the smaller downstream data. Recent work formulated OOV embedding learning as a few-shot regression problem and demonstrated that meta-learning can improve results obtained. However, the algorithm used, model-agnostic meta-learning (MAML) is known to be unstable and perform worse when a large number of gradient steps are used for parameter updates. In this work, we propose the use of Leap, a meta-learning algorithm which leverages the entire trajectory of the learning process instead of just the beginning and the end points, and thus ameliorates these two issues. In our experiments on a benchmark OOV embedding learning dataset and in an extrinsic evaluation, Leap performs comparably or better than MAML. We go on to examine which contexts are most beneficial to learn an OOV embedding from, and propose that the choice of contexts may matter more than the meta-learning employed.

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Dependency Parsing Evaluation for Low-resource Spontaneous Speech
Zoey Liu | Emily Prud’hommeaux

How well can a state-of-the-art parsing system, developed for the written domain, perform when applied to spontaneous speech data involving different interlocutors? This study addresses this question in a low-resource setting using child-parent conversations from the CHILDES databse. Specifically, we focus on dependency parsing evaluation for utterances of one specific child (18 - 27 months) and her parents. We first present a semi-automatic adaption of the dependency annotation scheme in CHILDES to that of the Universal Dependencies project, an annotation style that is more commonly applied in dependency parsing. Our evaluation demonstrates that an outof-domain biaffine parser trained only on written texts performs well with parent speech. There is, however, much room for improvement on child utterances, particularly at 18 and 21 months, due to cases of omission and repetition that are prevalent in child speech. By contrast, parsers trained or fine-tuned with in-domain spoken data on a much smaller scale can achieve comparable results for parent speech and improve the weak parsing performance for child speech at these earlier ages

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An Empirical Study of Compound PCFGs
Yanpeng Zhao | Ivan Titov

Compound probabilistic context-free grammars (C-PCFGs) have recently established a new state of the art for phrase-structure grammar induction. However, due to the high time-complexity of chart-based representation and inference, it is difficult to investigate them comprehensively. In this work, we rely on a fast implementation of C-PCFGs to conduct evaluation complementary to that of (CITATION). We highlight three key findings: (1) C-PCFGs are data-efficient, (2) C-PCFGs make the best use of global sentence-level information in preterminal rule probabilities, and (3) the best configurations of C-PCFGs on English do not always generalize to morphology-rich languages.

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User Factor Adaptation for User Embedding via Multitask Learning
Xiaolei Huang | Michael J. Paul | Franck Dernoncourt | Robin Burke | Mark Dredze

Language varies across users and their interested fields in social media data: words authored by a user across his/her interests may have different meanings (e.g., cool) or sentiments (e.g., fast). However, most of the existing methods to train user embeddings ignore the variations across user interests, such as product and movie categories (e.g., drama vs. action). In this study, we treat the user interest as domains and empirically examine how the user language can vary across the user factor in three English social media datasets. We then propose a user embedding model to account for the language variability of user interests via a multitask learning framework. The model learns user language and its variations without human supervision. While existing work mainly evaluated the user embedding by extrinsic tasks, we propose an intrinsic evaluation via clustering and evaluate user embeddings by an extrinsic task, text classification. The experiments on the three English-language social media datasets show that our proposed approach can generally outperform baselines via adapting the user factor.

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On the Effectiveness of Dataset Embeddings in Mono-lingual,Multi-lingual and Zero-shot Conditions
Rob van der Goot | Ahmet Üstün | Barbara Plank

Recent complementary strands of research have shown that leveraging information on the data source through encoding their properties into embeddings can lead to performance increase when training a single model on heterogeneous data sources. However, it remains unclear in which situations these dataset embeddings are most effective, because they are used in a large variety of settings, languages and tasks. Furthermore, it is usually assumed that gold information on the data source is available, and that the test data is from a distribution seen during training. In this work, we compare the effect of dataset embeddings in mono-lingual settings, multi-lingual settings, and with predicted data source label in a zero-shot setting. We evaluate on three morphosyntactic tasks: morphological tagging, lemmatization, and dependency parsing, and use 104 datasets, 66 languages, and two different dataset grouping strategies. Performance increases are highest when the datasets are of the same language, and we know from which distribution the test-instance is drawn. In contrast, for setups where the data is from an unseen distribution, performance increase vanishes.

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Effective Distant Supervision for Temporal Relation Extraction
Xinyu Zhao | Shih-Ting Lin | Greg Durrett

A principal barrier to training temporal relation extraction models in new domains is the lack of varied, high quality examples and the challenge of collecting more. We present a method of automatically collecting distantly-supervised examples of temporal relations. We scrape and automatically label event pairs where the temporal relations are made explicit in text, then mask out those explicit cues, forcing a model trained on this data to learn other signals. We demonstrate that a pre-trained Transformer model is able to transfer from the weakly labeled examples to human-annotated benchmarks in both zero-shot and few-shot settings, and that the masking scheme is important in improving generalization.

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Zero-Shot Cross-Lingual Dependency Parsing through Contextual Embedding Transformation
Haoran Xu | Philipp Koehn

Linear embedding transformation has been shown to be effective for zero-shot cross-lingual transfer tasks and achieve surprisingly promising results. However, cross-lingual embedding space mapping is usually studied in static word-level embeddings, where a space transformation is derived by aligning representations of translation pairs that are referred from dictionaries. We move further from this line and investigate a contextual embedding alignment approach which is sense-level and dictionary-free. To enhance the quality of the mapping, we also provide a deep view of properties of contextual embeddings, i.e., the anisotropy problem and its solution. Experiments on zero-shot dependency parsing through the concept-shared space built by our embedding transformation substantially outperform state-of-the-art methods using multilingual embeddings.

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Gradual Fine-Tuning for Low-Resource Domain Adaptation
Haoran Xu | Seth Ebner | Mahsa Yarmohammadi | Aaron Steven White | Benjamin Van Durme | Kenton Murray

Fine-tuning is known to improve NLP models by adapting an initial model trained on more plentiful but less domain-salient examples to data in a target domain. Such domain adaptation is typically done using one stage of fine-tuning. We demonstrate that gradually fine-tuning in a multi-step process can yield substantial further gains and can be applied without modifying the model or learning objective.

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Analyzing the Domain Robustness of Pretrained Language Models, Layer by Layer
Abhinav Ramesh Kashyap | Laiba Mehnaz | Bhavitvya Malik | Abdul Waheed | Devamanyu Hazarika | Min-Yen Kan | Rajiv Ratn Shah

The robustness of pretrained language models(PLMs) is generally measured using performance drops on two or more domains. However, we do not yet understand the inherent robustness achieved by contributions from different layers of a PLM. We systematically analyze the robustness of these representations layer by layer from two perspectives. First, we measure the robustness of representations by using domain divergence between two domains. We find that i) Domain variance increases from the lower to the upper layers for vanilla PLMs; ii) Models continuously pretrained on domain-specific data (DAPT)(Gururangan et al., 2020) exhibit more variance than their pretrained PLM counterparts; and that iii) Distilled models (e.g., DistilBERT) also show greater domain variance. Second, we investigate the robustness of representations by analyzing the encoded syntactic and semantic information using diagnostic probes. We find that similar layers have similar amounts of linguistic information for data from an unseen domain.

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Few-Shot Learning of an Interleaved Text Summarization Model by Pretraining with Synthetic Data
Sanjeev Kumar Karn | Francine Chen | Yan-Ying Chen | Ulli Waltinger | Hinrich Schütze

Interleaved texts, where posts belonging to different threads occur in a sequence, commonly occur in online chat posts, so that it can be time-consuming to quickly obtain an overview of the discussions. Existing systems first disentangle the posts by threads and then extract summaries from those threads. A major issue with such systems is error propagation from the disentanglement component. While end-to-end trainable summarization system could obviate explicit disentanglement, such systems require a large amount of labeled data. To address this, we propose to pretrain an end-to-end trainable hierarchical encoder-decoder system using synthetic interleaved texts. We show that by fine-tuning on a real-world meeting dataset (AMI), such a system out-performs a traditional two-step system by 22%. We also compare against transformer models and observed that pretraining with synthetic data both the encoder and decoder outperforms the BertSumExtAbs transformer model which pretrains only the encoder on a large dataset.

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Semantic Parsing of Brief and Multi-Intent Natural Language Utterances
Logan Lebanoff | Charles Newton | Victor Hung | Beth Atkinson | John Killilea | Fei Liu

Many military communication domains involve rapidly conveying situation awareness with few words. Converting natural language utterances to logical forms in these domains is challenging, as these utterances are brief and contain multiple intents. In this paper, we present a first effort toward building a weakly-supervised semantic parser to transform brief, multi-intent natural utterances into logical forms. Our findings suggest a new “projection and reduction” method that iteratively performs projection from natural to canonical utterances followed by reduction of natural utterances is the most effective. We conduct extensive experiments on two military and a general-domain dataset and provide a new baseline for future research toward accurate parsing of multi-intent utterances.

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Domain Adaptation for NMT via Filtered Iterative Back-Translation
Surabhi Kumari | Nikhil Jaiswal | Mayur Patidar | Manasi Patwardhan | Shirish Karande | Puneet Agarwal | Lovekesh Vig

Domain-specific Neural Machine Translation (NMT) model can provide improved performance, however, it is difficult to always access a domain-specific parallel corpus. Iterative Back-Translation can be used for fine-tuning an NMT model for a domain even if only a monolingual domain corpus is available. The quality of synthetic parallel corpora in terms of closeness to in-domain sentences can play an important role in the performance of the translation model. Recent works have shown that filtering at different stages of the back translation and weighting the sentences can provide state-of-the-art performance. In comparison, in this work, we observe that a simpler filtering approach based on a domain classifier, applied only to the pseudo-training data can consistently perform better, providing performance gains of 1.40, 1.82 and 0.76 in terms of BLEU score for Medical, Law and IT in one direction, and 1.28, 1.60 and 1.60 in the other direction in low resource scenario over competitive baselines. In the high resource scenario, our approach is at par with competitive baselines.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Advances in Language and Vision Research

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Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Advances in Language and Vision Research
Xin | Ronghang Hu | Drew Hudson | Tsu-Jui Fu | Marcus Rohrbach | Daniel Fried

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Feature-level Incongruence Reduction for Multimodal Translation
Zhifeng Li | Yu Hong | Yuchen Pan | Jian Tang | Jianmin Yao | Guodong Zhou

Caption translation aims to translate image annotations (captions for short). Recently, Multimodal Neural Machine Translation (MNMT) has been explored as the essential solution. Besides of linguistic features in captions, MNMT allows visual(image) features to be used. The integration of multimodal features reinforces the semantic representation and considerably improves translation performance. However, MNMT suffers from the incongruence between visual and linguistic features. To overcome the problem, we propose to extend MNMT architecture with a harmonization network, which harmonizes multimodal features(linguistic and visual features)by unidirectional modal space conversion. It enables multimodal translation to be carried out in a seemingly monomodal translation pipeline. We experiment on the golden Multi30k-16 and 17. Experimental results show that, compared to the baseline,the proposed method yields the improvements of 2.2% BLEU for the scenario of translating English captions into German (En→De) at best,7.6% for the case of English-to-French translation(En→Fr) and 1.5% for English-to-Czech(En→Cz). The utilization of harmonization network leads to the competitive performance to the-state-of-the-art.

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Error Causal inference for Multi-Fusion models
Chengxi Li | Brent Harrison

In this paper, we propose an error causal inference method that could be used for finding dominant features for a faulty instance under a well-trained multi-modality input model, which could apply to any testing instance. We evaluate our method using a well-trained multi-modalities stylish caption generation model and find those causal inferences that could provide us the insights for next step optimization.

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Leveraging Partial Dependency Trees to Control Image Captions
Wenjie Zhong | Yusuke Miyao

Controlling the generation of image captions attracts lots of attention recently. In this paper, we propose a framework leveraging partial syntactic dependency trees as control signals to make image captions include specified words and their syntactic structures. To achieve this purpose, we propose a Syntactic Dependency Structure Aware Model (SDSAM), which explicitly learns to generate the syntactic structures of image captions to include given partial dependency trees. In addition, we come up with a metric to evaluate how many specified words and their syntactic dependencies are included in generated captions. We carry out experiments on two standard datasets: Microsoft COCO and Flickr30k. Empirical results show that image captions generated by our model are effectively controlled in terms of specified words and their syntactic structures. The code is available on GitHub.

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Grounding Plural Phrases: Countering Evaluation Biases by Individuation
Julia Suter | Letitia Parcalabescu | Anette Frank

Phrase grounding (PG) is a multimodal task that grounds language in images. PG systems are evaluated on well-known benchmarks, using Intersection over Union (IoU) as evaluation metric. This work highlights a disconcerting bias in the evaluation of grounded plural phrases, which arises from representing sets of objects as a union box covering all component bounding boxes, in conjunction with the IoU metric. We detect, analyze and quantify an evaluation bias in the grounding of plural phrases and define a novel metric, c-IoU, based on a union box’s component boxes. We experimentally show that our new metric greatly alleviates this bias and recommend using it for fairer evaluation of plural phrases in PG tasks.

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PanGEA: The Panoramic Graph Environment Annotation Toolkit
Alexander Ku | Peter Anderson | Jordi Pont Tuset | Jason Baldridge

PanGEA, the Panoramic Graph Environment Annotation toolkit, is a lightweight toolkit for collecting speech and text annotations in photo-realistic 3D environments. PanGEA immerses annotators in a web-based simulation and allows them to move around easily as they speak and/or listen. It includes database and cloud storage integration, plus utilities for automatically aligning recorded speech with manual transcriptions and the virtual pose of the annotators. Out of the box, PanGEA supports two tasks – collecting navigation instructions and navigation instruction following – and it could be easily adapted for annotating walking tours, finding and labeling landmarks or objects, and similar tasks. We share best practices learned from using PanGEA in a 20,000 hour annotation effort to collect the Room-Across-Room dataset. We hope that our open-source annotation toolkit and insights will both expedite future data collection efforts and spur innovation on the kinds of grounded language tasks such environments can support.

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Learning to Learn Semantic Factors in Heterogeneous Image Classification
Boyue Fan | Zhenting Liu

Few-shot learning is to recognize novel classes with a few labeled samples per class. Although numerous meta-learning methods have made significant progress, they struggle to directly address the heterogeneity of training and evaluating task distributions, resulting in the domain shift problem when transitioning to new tasks with disjoint spaces. In this paper, we propose a novel method to deal with the heterogeneity. Specifically, by simulating class-difference domain shift during the meta-train phase, a bilevel optimization procedure is applied to learn a transferable representation space that can rapidly adapt to heterogeneous tasks. Experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed method.

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Reference and coreference in situated dialogue
Sharid Loáiciga | Simon Dobnik | David Schlangen

In recent years several corpora have been developed for vision and language tasks. We argue that there is still significant room for corpora that increase the complexity of both visual and linguistic domains and which capture different varieties of perceptual and conversational contexts. Working with two corpora approaching this goal, we present a linguistic perspective on some of the challenges in creating and extending resources combining language and vision while preserving continuity with the existing best practices in the area of coreference annotation.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the First Workshop on Natural Language Processing for Indigenous Languages of the Americas

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Proceedings of the First Workshop on Natural Language Processing for Indigenous Languages of the Americas
Manuel Mager | Arturo Oncevay | Annette Rios | Ivan Vladimir Meza Ruiz | Alexis Palmer | Graham Neubig | Katharina Kann

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qxoRef 1.0: A coreference corpus and mention-pair baseline for coreference resolution in Conchucos Quechua
Elizabeth Pankratz

This paper introduces qxoRef 1.0, the first coreference corpus to be developed for a Quechuan language, and describes a baseline mention-pair coreference resolution system developed for this corpus. The evaluation of this system will illustrate that earlier steps in the NLP pipeline, in particular syntactic parsing, should be in place before a complex task like coreference resolution can truly succeed. qxoRef 1.0 is freely available under a CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

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A corpus of K’iche’ annotated for morphosyntactic structure
Francis Tyers | Robert Henderson

This article describes a collection of sentences in K’iche’ annotated for morphology and syntax. K’iche’ is a language in the Mayan language family, spoken in Guatemala. The annotation is done according to the guidelines of the Universal Dependencies project. The corpus consists of a total of 1,433 sentences containing approximately 10,000 tokens and is released under a free/open-source licence. We present a comparison of parsing systems for K’iche’ using this corpus and describe how it can be used for mining linguistic examples.

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Investigating variation in written forms of Nahuatl using character-based language models
Robert Pugh | Francis Tyers

We describe experiments with character-based language modeling for written variants of Nahuatl. Using a standard LSTM model and publicly available Bible translations, we explore how character language models can be applied to the tasks of estimating mutual intelligibility, identifying genetic similarity, and distinguishing written variants. We demonstrate that these simple language models are able to capture similarities and differences that have been described in the linguistic literature.

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Apurinã Universal Dependencies Treebank
Jack Rueter | Marília Fernanda Pereira de Freitas | Sidney Da Silva Facundes | Mika Hämäläinen | Niko Partanen

This paper presents and discusses the first Universal Dependencies treebank for the Apurinã language. The treebank contains 76 fully annotated sentences, applies 14 parts-of-speech, as well as seven augmented or new features — some of which are unique to Apurinã. The construction of the treebank has also served as an opportunity to develop finite-state description of the language and facilitate the transfer of open-source infrastructure possibilities to an endangered language of the Amazon. The source materials used in the initial treebank represent fieldwork practices where not all tokens of all sentences are equally annotated. For this reason, establishing regular annotation practices for the entire Apurinã treebank is an ongoing project.

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Automatic Interlinear Glossing for Otomi language
Diego Barriga Martínez | Victor Mijangos | Ximena Gutierrez-Vasques

In linguistics, interlinear glossing is an essential procedure for analyzing the morphology of languages. This type of annotation is useful for language documentation, and it can also provide valuable data for NLP applications. We perform automatic glossing for Otomi, an under-resourced language. Our work also comprises the pre-processing and annotation of the corpus. We implement different sequential labelers. CRF models represented an efficient and good solution for our task. Two main observations emerged from our work: 1) models with a higher number of parameters (RNNs) performed worse in our low-resource scenario; and 2) the information encoded in the CRF feature function plays an important role in the prediction of labels; however, even in cases where POS tags are not available it is still possible to achieve competitive results.

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A survey of part-of-speech tagging approaches applied to K’iche’
Francis Tyers | Nick Howell

We study the performance of several popular neural part-of-speech taggers from the Universal Dependencies ecosystem on Mayan languages using a small corpus of 1435 annotated K’iche’ sentences consisting of approximately 10,000 tokens, with encouraging results: F1 scores 93%+ on lemmatisation, part-of-speech and morphological feature assignment. The high performance motivates a cross-language part-of-speech tagging study, where K’iche’-trained models are evaluated on two other Mayan languages, Kaqchikel and Uspanteko: performance on Kaqchikel is good, 63-85%, and on Uspanteko modest, 60-71%. Supporting experiments lead us to conclude the relative diversity of morphological features as a plausible explanation for the limiting factors in cross-language tagging performance, providing some direction for future sentence annotation and collection work to support these and other Mayan languages.

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Highland Puebla Nahuatl Speech Translation Corpus for Endangered Language Documentation
Jiatong Shi | Jonathan D. Amith | Xuankai Chang | Siddharth Dalmia | Brian Yan | Shinji Watanabe

Documentation of endangered languages (ELs) has become increasingly urgent as thousands of languages are on the verge of disappearing by the end of the 21st century. One challenging aspect of documentation is to develop machine learning tools to automate the processing of EL audio via automatic speech recognition (ASR), machine translation (MT), or speech translation (ST). This paper presents an open-access speech translation corpus of Highland Puebla Nahuatl (glottocode high1278), an EL spoken in central Mexico. It then addresses machine learning contributions to endangered language documentation and argues for the importance of speech translation as a key element in the documentation process. In our experiments, we observed that state-of-the-art end-to-end ST models could outperform a cascaded ST (ASR > MT) pipeline when translating endangered language documentation materials.

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End-to-End Automatic Speech Recognition: Its Impact on the Workflowin Documenting Yoloxóchitl Mixtec
Jonathan D. Amith | Jiatong Shi | Rey Castillo García

This paper describes three open access Yoloxóchitl Mixtec corpora and presents the results and implications of end-to-end automatic speech recognition for endangered language documentation. Two issues are addressed. First, the advantage for ASR accuracy of targeting informational (BPE) units in addition to, or in substitution of, linguistic units (word, morpheme, morae) and then using ROVER for system combination. BPE units consistently outperform linguistic units although the best results are obtained by system combination of different BPE targets. Second, a case is made that for endangered language documentation, ASR contributions should be evaluated according to extrinsic criteria (e.g., positive impact on downstream tasks) and not simply intrinsic metrics (e.g., CER and WER). The extrinsic metric chosen is the level of reduction in the human effort needed to produce high-quality transcriptions for permanent archiving.

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A finite-state morphological analyser for Paraguayan Guaraní
Anastasia Kuznetsova | Francis Tyers

This article describes the development of morphological analyser for Paraguayan Guaraní, agglutinative indigenous language spoken by nearly 6 million people in South America. The implementation of our analyser uses HFST (Helsiki Finite State Technology) and two-level transducer that covers morphotactics and phonological processes occurring in Guaraní. We assess the efficacy of the approach on publicly available Wikipedia and Bible corpora and the naive coverage of analyser reaches 86% on Wikipedia and 91% on Bible corpora.

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Morphological Segmentation for Seneca
Zoey Liu | Robert Jimerson | Emily Prud’hommeaux

This study takes up the task of low-resource morphological segmentation for Seneca, a critically endangered and morphologically complex Native American language primarily spoken in what is now New York State and Ontario. The labeled data in our experiments comes from two sources: one digitized from a publicly available grammar book and the other collected from informal sources. We treat these two sources as distinct domains and investigate different evaluation designs for model selection. The first design abides by standard practices and evaluate models with the in-domain development set, while the second one carries out evaluation using a development domain, or the out-of-domain development set. Across a series of monolingual and crosslinguistic training settings, our results demonstrate the utility of neural encoder-decoder architecture when coupled with multi-task learning.

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Representation of Yine [Arawak] Morphology by Finite State Transducer Formalism
Adriano Ingunza Torres | John Miller | Arturo Oncevay | Roberto Zariquiey Biondi

We represent the complexity of Yine (Arawak) morphology with a finite state transducer (FST) based morphological analyzer. Yine is a low-resource indigenous polysynthetic Peruvian language spoken by approximately 3,000 people and is classified as ‘definitely endangered’ by UNESCO. We review Yine morphology focusing on morphophonology, possessive constructions and verbal predicates. Then we develop FSTs to model these components proposing techniques to solve challenging problems such as complex patterns of incorporating open and closed category arguments. This is a work in progress and we still have more to do in the development and verification of our analyzer. Our analyzer will serve both as a tool to better document the Yine language and as a component of natural language processing (NLP) applications such as spell checking and correction.

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Leveraging English Word Embeddings for Semi-Automatic Semantic Classification in Nêhiyawêwin (Plains Cree)
Atticus Harrigan | Antti Arppe

This paper details a semi-automatic method of word clustering for the Algonquian language, Nêhiyawêwin (Plains Cree). Although this method worked well, particularly for nouns, it required some amount of manual postprocessing. The main benefit of this approach over implementing an existing classification ontology is that this method approaches the language from an endogenous point of view, while performing classification quicker than in a fully manual context.

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Restoring the Sister: Reconstructing a Lexicon from Sister Languages using Neural Machine Translation
Remo Nitschke

The historical comparative method has a long history in historical linguists. It describes a process by which historical linguists aim to reverse-engineer the historical developments of language families in order to reconstruct proto-forms and familial relations between languages. In recent years, there have been multiple attempts to replicate this process through machine learning, especially in the realm of cognate detection (List et al., 2016; Ciobanu and Dinu, 2014; Rama et al., 2018). So far, most of these experiments aimed at actual reconstruction have attempted the prediction of a proto-form from the forms of the daughter languages (Ciobanu and Dinu, 2018; Meloni et al., 2019).. Here, we propose a reimplementation that uses modern related languages, or sisters, instead, to reconstruct the vocabulary of a target language. In particular, we show that we can reconstruct vocabulary of a target language by using a fairly small data set of parallel cognates from different sister languages, using a neural machine translation (NMT) architecture with a standard encoder-decoder setup. This effort is directly in furtherance of the goal to use machine learning tools to help under-served language communities in their efforts at reclaiming, preserving, or reconstructing their own languages.

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Expanding Universal Dependencies for Polysynthetic Languages: A Case of St. Lawrence Island Yupik
Hyunji Hayley Park | Lane Schwartz | Francis Tyers

This paper describes the development of the first Universal Dependencies (UD) treebank for St. Lawrence Island Yupik, an endangered language spoken in the Bering Strait region. While the UD guidelines provided a general framework for our annotations, language-specific decisions were made necessary by the rich morphology of the polysynthetic language. Most notably, we annotated a corpus at the morpheme level as well as the word level. The morpheme level annotation was conducted using an existing morphological analyzer and manual disambiguation. By comparing the two resulting annotation schemes, we argue that morpheme-level annotation is essential for polysynthetic languages like St. Lawrence Island Yupik. Word-level annotation results in degenerate trees for some Yupik sentences and often fails to capture syntactic relations that can be manifested at the morpheme level. Dependency parsing experiments provide further support for morpheme-level annotation. Implications for UD annotation of other polysynthetic languages are discussed.

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The More Detail, the Better? – Investigating the Effects of Semantic Ontology Specificity on Vector Semantic Classification with a Plains Cree / nêhiyawêwin Dictionary
Daniel Dacanay | Atticus Harrigan | Arok Wolvengrey | Antti Arppe

One problem in the task of automatic semantic classification is the problem of determining the level on which to group lexical items. This is often accomplished using pre-made, hierarchical semantic ontologies. The following investigation explores the computational assignment of semantic classifications on the contents of a dictionary of nêhiyawêwin / Plains Cree (ISO: crk, Algonquian, Western Canada and United States), using a semantic vector space model, and following two semantic ontologies, WordNet and SIL’s Rapid Words, and compares how these computational results compare to manual classifications with the same two ontologies.

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Experiments on a Guarani Corpus of News and Social Media
Santiago Góngora | Nicolás Giossa | Luis Chiruzzo

While Guarani is widely spoken in South America, obtaining a large amount of Guarani text from the web is hard. We present the building process of a Guarani corpus composed of a parallel Guarani-Spanish set of news articles, and a monolingual set of tweets. We perform some word embeddings experiments aiming at evaluating the quality of the Guarani split of the corpus, finding encouraging results but noticing that more diversity in text domains might be needed for further improvements.

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Towards a First Automatic Unsupervised Morphological Segmentation for Inuinnaqtun
Ngoc Tan Le | Fatiha Sadat

Low-resource polysynthetic languages pose many challenges in NLP tasks, such as morphological analysis and Machine Translation, due to available resources and tools, and the morphologically complex languages. This research focuses on the morphological segmentation while adapting an unsupervised approach based on Adaptor Grammars in low-resource setting. Experiments and evaluations on Inuinnaqtun, one of Inuit language family in Northern Canada, considered a language that will be extinct in less than two generations, have shown promising results.

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Toward Creation of Ancash Lexical Resources from OCR
Johanna Cordova | Damien Nouvel

The Quechua linguistic family has a limited number of NLP resources, most of them being dedicated to Southern Quechua, whereas the varieties of Central Quechua have, to the best of our knowledge, no specific resources (software, lexicon or corpus). Our work addresses this issue by producing two resources for the Ancash Quechua: a full digital version of a dictionary, and an OCR model adapted to the considered variety. In this paper, we describe the steps towards this goal: we first measure performances of existing models for the task of digitising a Quechua dictionary, then adapt a model for the Ancash variety, and finally create a reliable resource for NLP in XML-TEI format. We hope that this work will be a basis for initiating NLP projects for Central Quechua, and that it will encourage digitisation initiatives for under-resourced languages.

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Ayuuk-Spanish Neural Machine Translator
Delfino Zacarías Márquez | Ivan Vladimir Meza Ruiz

This paper presents the first neural machine translator system for the Ayuuk language. In our experiments we translate from Ayuuk to Spanish, and fromSpanish to Ayuuk. Ayuuk is a language spoken in the Oaxaca state of Mexico by the Ayuukjä’äy people (in Spanish commonly known as Mixes. We use different sources to create a low-resource parallel corpus, more than 6,000 phrases. For some of these resources we rely on automatic alignment. The proposed system is based on the Transformer neural architecture and it uses sub-word level tokenization as the input. We show the current performance given the resources we have collected for the San Juan Güichicovi variant, they are promising, up to 5 BLEU. We based our development on the Masakhane project for African languages.

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Explicit Tone Transcription Improves ASR Performance in Extremely Low-Resource Languages: A Case Study in Bribri
Rolando Coto-Solano

Linguistic tone is transcribed for input into ASR systems in numerous ways. This paper shows a systematic test of several transcription styles, using as an example the Chibchan language Bribri, an extremely low-resource language from Costa Rica. The most successful models separate the tone from the vowel, so that the ASR algorithms learn tone patterns independently. These models showed improvements ranging from 4% to 25% in character error rate (CER), and between 3% and 23% in word error rate (WER). This is true for both traditional GMM/HMM and end-to-end CTC algorithms. This paper also presents the first attempt to train ASR models for Bribri. The best performing models had a CER of 33% and a WER of 50%. Despite the disadvantage of using hand-engineered representations, these models were trained on only 68 minutes of data, and therefore show the potential of ASR to generate further training materials and aid in the documentation and revitalization of the language.

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Towards a morphological transducer and orthography converter for Western Tlacolula Valley Zapotec
Jonathan Washington | Felipe Lopez | Brook Lillehaugen

This paper presents work towards a morphological transducer and orthography converter for Dizhsa, or San Lucas Quiaviní Zapotec, an endangered Western Tlacolula Valley Zapotec language. The implementation of various aspects of the language’s morphology is presented, as well as the transducer’s ability to perform analysis in two orthographies and convert between them. Potential uses of the transducer for language maintenance and issues of licensing are also discussed. Evaluation of the transducer shows that it is fairly robust although incomplete, and evaluation of orthographic conversion shows that this method is strongly affected by the coverage of the transducer.

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Peru is Multilingual, Its Machine Translation Should Be Too?
Arturo Oncevay

Peru is a multilingual country with a long history of contact between the indigenous languages and Spanish. Taking advantage of this context for machine translation is possible with multilingual approaches for learning both unsupervised subword segmentation and neural machine translation models. The study proposes the first multilingual translation models for four languages spoken in Peru: Aymara, Ashaninka, Quechua and Shipibo-Konibo, providing both many-to-Spanish and Spanish-to-many models and outperforming pairwise baselines in most of them. The task exploited a large English-Spanish dataset for pre-training, monolingual texts with tagged back-translation, and parallel corpora aligned with English. Finally, by fine-tuning the best models, we also assessed the out-of-domain capabilities in two evaluation datasets for Quechua and a new one for Shipibo-Konibo.

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Findings of the AmericasNLP 2021 Shared Task on Open Machine Translation for Indigenous Languages of the Americas
Manuel Mager | Arturo Oncevay | Abteen Ebrahimi | John Ortega | Annette Rios | Angela Fan | Ximena Gutierrez-Vasques | Luis Chiruzzo | Gustavo Giménez-Lugo | Ricardo Ramos | Ivan Vladimir Meza Ruiz | Rolando Coto-Solano | Alexis Palmer | Elisabeth Mager-Hois | Vishrav Chaudhary | Graham Neubig | Ngoc Thang Vu | Katharina Kann

This paper presents the results of the 2021 Shared Task on Open Machine Translation for Indigenous Languages of the Americas. The shared task featured two independent tracks, and participants submitted machine translation systems for up to 10 indigenous languages. Overall, 8 teams participated with a total of 214 submissions. We provided training sets consisting of data collected from various sources, as well as manually translated sentences for the development and test sets. An official baseline trained on this data was also provided. Team submissions featured a variety of architectures, including both statistical and neural models, and for the majority of languages, many teams were able to considerably improve over the baseline. The best performing systems achieved 12.97 ChrF higher than baseline, when averaged across languages.

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Open Machine Translation for Low Resource South American Languages (AmericasNLP 2021 Shared Task Contribution)
Shantipriya Parida | Subhadarshi Panda | Amulya Dash | Esau Villatoro-Tello | A. Seza Doğruöz | Rosa M. Ortega-Mendoza | Amadeo Hernández | Yashvardhan Sharma | Petr Motlicek

This paper describes the team (“Tamalli”)’s submission to AmericasNLP2021 shared task on Open Machine Translation for low resource South American languages. Our goal was to evaluate different Machine Translation (MT) techniques, statistical and neural-based, under several configuration settings. We obtained the second-best results for the language pairs “Spanish-Bribri”, “Spanish-Asháninka”, and “Spanish-Rarámuri” in the category “Development set not used for training”. Our performed experiments will serve as a point of reference for researchers working on MT with low-resource languages.

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NRC-CNRC Machine Translation Systems for the 2021 AmericasNLP Shared Task
Rebecca Knowles | Darlene Stewart | Samuel Larkin | Patrick Littell

We describe the NRC-CNRC systems submitted to the AmericasNLP shared task on machine translation. We submitted systems translating from Spanish into Wixárika, Nahuatl, Rarámuri, and Guaraní. Our best neural machine translation systems used multilingual pretraining, ensembling, finetuning, training on parts of the development data, and subword regularization. We also submitted translation memory systems as a strong baseline.

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Low-Resource Machine Translation Using Cross-Lingual Language Model Pretraining
Francis Zheng | Machel Reid | Edison Marrese-Taylor | Yutaka Matsuo

This paper describes UTokyo’s submission to the AmericasNLP 2021 Shared Task on machine translation systems for indigenous languages of the Americas. We present a low-resource machine translation system that improves translation accuracy using cross-lingual language model pretraining. Our system uses an mBART implementation of fairseq to pretrain on a large set of monolingual data from a diverse set of high-resource languages before finetuning on 10 low-resource indigenous American languages: Aymara, Bribri, Asháninka, Guaraní, Wixarika, Náhuatl, Hñähñu, Quechua, Shipibo-Konibo, and Rarámuri. On average, our system achieved BLEU scores that were 1.64 higher and chrF scores that were 0.0749 higher than the baseline.

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The REPU CS’ Spanish–Quechua Submission to the AmericasNLP 2021 Shared Task on Open Machine Translation
Oscar Moreno

We present the submission of REPUcs to the AmericasNLP machine translation shared task for the low resource language pair Spanish–Quechua. Our neural machine translation system ranked first in Track two (development set not used for training) and third in Track one (training includes development data). Our contribution is focused on: (i) the collection of new parallel data from different web sources (poems, lyrics, lexicons, handbooks), and (ii) using large Spanish–English data for pre-training and then fine-tuning the Spanish–Quechua system. This paper describes the new parallel corpora and our approach in detail.

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Moses and the Character-Based Random Babbling Baseline: CoAStaL at AmericasNLP 2021 Shared Task
Marcel Bollmann | Rahul Aralikatte | Héctor Murrieta Bello | Daniel Hershcovich | Miryam de Lhoneux | Anders Søgaard

We evaluated a range of neural machine translation techniques developed specifically for low-resource scenarios. Unsuccessfully. In the end, we submitted two runs: (i) a standard phrase-based model, and (ii) a random babbling baseline using character trigrams. We found that it was surprisingly hard to beat (i), in spite of this model being, in theory, a bad fit for polysynthetic languages; and more interestingly, that (ii) was better than several of the submitted systems, highlighting how difficult low-resource machine translation for polysynthetic languages is.

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The Helsinki submission to the AmericasNLP shared task
Raúl Vázquez | Yves Scherrer | Sami Virpioja | Jörg Tiedemann

The University of Helsinki participated in the AmericasNLP shared task for all ten language pairs. Our multilingual NMT models reached the first rank on all language pairs in track 1, and first rank on nine out of ten language pairs in track 2. We focused our efforts on three aspects: (1) the collection of additional data from various sources such as Bibles and political constitutions, (2) the cleaning and filtering of training data with the OpusFilter toolkit, and (3) different multilingual training techniques enabled by the latest version of the OpenNMT-py toolkit to make the most efficient use of the scarce data. This paper describes our efforts in detail.

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IndT5: A Text-to-Text Transformer for 10 Indigenous Languages
El Moatez Billah Nagoudi | Wei-Rui Chen | Muhammad Abdul-Mageed | Hasan Cavusoglu

Transformer language models have become fundamental components of NLP based pipelines. Although several Transformer have been introduced to serve many languages, there is a shortage of models pre-trained for low-resource and Indigenous languages in particular. In this work, we introduce IndT5, the first Transformer language model for Indigenous languages. To train IndT5, we build IndCorpus, a new corpus for 10 Indigenous languages and Spanish. We also present the application of IndT5 to machine translation by investigating different approaches to translate between Spanish and the Indigenous languages as part of our contribution to the AmericasNLP 2021 Shared Task on Open Machine Translation. IndT5 and IndCorpus are publicly available for research.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 8th Workshop on Argument Mining

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Proceedings of the 8th Workshop on Argument Mining
Khalid Al-Khatib | Yufang Hou | Manfred Stede

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Argument Mining on Twitter: A Case Study on the Planned Parenthood Debate
Muhammad Mahad Afzal Bhatti | Ahsan Suheer Ahmad | Joonsuk Park

Twitter is a popular platform to share opinions and claims, which may be accompanied by the underlying rationale. Such information can be invaluable to policy makers, marketers and social scientists, to name a few. However, the effort to mine arguments on Twitter has been limited, mainly because a tweet is typically too short to contain an argument — both a claim and a premise. In this paper, we propose a novel problem formulation to mine arguments from Twitter: We formulate argument mining on Twitter as a text classification task to identify tweets that serve as premises for a hashtag that represents a claim of interest. To demonstrate the efficacy of this formulation, we mine arguments for and against funding Planned Parenthood expressed in tweets. We first present a new dataset of 24,100 tweets containing hashtag #StandWithPP or #DefundPP, manually labeled as SUPPORT WITH REASON, SUPPORT WITHOUT REASON, and NO EXPLICIT SUPPORT. We then train classifiers to determine the types of tweets, achieving the best performance of 71% F1. Our results manifest claim-specific keywords as the most informative features, which in turn reveal prominent arguments for and against funding Planned Parenthood.

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Multi-task and Multi-corpora Training Strategies to Enhance Argumentative Sentence Linking Performance
Jan Wira Gotama Putra | Simone Teufel | Takenobu Tokunaga

Argumentative structure prediction aims to establish links between textual units and label the relationship between them, forming a structured representation for a given input text. The former task, linking, has been identified by earlier works as particularly challenging, as it requires finding the most appropriate structure out of a very large search space of possible link combinations. In this paper, we improve a state-of-the-art linking model by using multi-task and multi-corpora training strategies. Our auxiliary tasks help the model to learn the role of each sentence in the argumentative structure. Combining multi-corpora training with a selective sampling strategy increases the training data size while ensuring that the model still learns the desired target distribution well. Experiments on essays written by English-as-a-foreign-language learners show that both strategies significantly improve the model’s performance; for instance, we observe a 15.8% increase in the F1-macro for individual link predictions.

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Explainable Unsupervised Argument Similarity Rating with Abstract Meaning Representation and Conclusion Generation
Juri Opitz | Philipp Heinisch | Philipp Wiesenbach | Philipp Cimiano | Anette Frank

When assessing the similarity of arguments, researchers typically use approaches that do not provide interpretable evidence or justifications for their ratings. Hence, the features that determine argument similarity remain elusive. We address this issue by introducing novel argument similarity metrics that aim at high performance and explainability. We show that Abstract Meaning Representation (AMR) graphs can be useful for representing arguments, and that novel AMR graph metrics can offer explanations for argument similarity ratings. We start from the hypothesis that similar premises often lead to similar conclusions—and extend an approach for AMR-based argument similarity rating by estimating, in addition, the similarity of conclusions that we automatically infer from the arguments used as premises. We show that AMR similarity metrics make argument similarity judgements more interpretable and may even support argument quality judgements. Our approach provides significant performance improvements over strong baselines in a fully unsupervised setting. Finally, we make first steps to address the problem of reference-less evaluation of argumentative conclusion generations.

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Image Retrieval for Arguments Using Stance-Aware Query Expansion
Johannes Kiesel | Nico Reichenbach | Benno Stein | Martin Potthast

Many forms of argumentation employ images as persuasive means, but research in argument mining has been focused on verbal argumentation so far. This paper shows how to integrate images into argument mining research, specifically into argument retrieval. By exploiting the sophisticated image representations of keyword-based image search, we propose to use semantic query expansion for both the pro and the con stance to retrieve “argumentative images” for the respective stance. Our results indicate that even simple expansions provide a strong baseline, reaching a precision@10 of 0.49 for images being (1) on-topic, (2) argumentative, and (3) on-stance. An in-depth analysis reveals a high topic dependence of the retrieval performance and shows the need to further investigate on images providing contextual information.

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Is Stance Detection Topic-Independent and Cross-topic Generalizable? - A Reproduction Study
Myrthe Reuver | Suzan Verberne | Roser Morante | Antske Fokkens

Cross-topic stance detection is the task to automatically detect stances (pro, against, or neutral) on unseen topics. We successfully reproduce state-of-the-art cross-topic stance detection work (Reimers et. al, 2019), and systematically analyze its reproducibility. Our attention then turns to the cross-topic aspect of this work, and the specificity of topics in terms of vocabulary and socio-cultural context. We ask: To what extent is stance detection topic-independent and generalizable across topics? We compare the model’s performance on various unseen topics, and find topic (e.g. abortion, cloning), class (e.g. pro, con), and their interaction affecting the model’s performance. We conclude that investigating performance on different topics, and addressing topic-specific vocabulary and context, is a future avenue for cross-topic stance detection. References Nils Reimers, Benjamin Schiller, Tilman Beck, Johannes Daxenberger, Christian Stab, and Iryna Gurevych. 2019. Classification and Clustering of Arguments with Contextualized Word Embeddings. In Proceedings of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, pages 567–578, Florence, Italy. Association for Computational Linguistics.

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Exploring Methodologies for Collecting High-Quality Implicit Reasoning in Arguments
Keshav Singh | Farjana Sultana Mim | Naoya Inoue | Shoichi Naito | Kentaro Inui

Annotation of implicit reasoning (i.e., warrant) in arguments is a critical resource to train models in gaining deeper understanding and correct interpretation of arguments. However, warrants are usually annotated in unstructured form, having no restriction on their lexical structure which sometimes makes it difficult to interpret how warrants relate to any of the information given in claim and premise. Moreover, assessing and determining better warrants from the large variety of reasoning patterns of unstructured warrants becomes a formidable task. Therefore, in order to annotate warrants in a more interpretative and restrictive way, we propose two methodologies to annotate warrants in a semi-structured form. To the best of our knowledge, we are the first to show how such semi-structured warrants can be annotated on a large scale via crowdsourcing. We demonstrate through extensive quality evaluation that our methodologies enable collecting better quality warrants in comparison to unstructured annotations. To further facilitate research towards the task of explicating warrants in arguments, we release our materials publicly (i.e., crowdsourcing guidelines and collected warrants).

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Assessing the Sufficiency of Arguments through Conclusion Generation
Timon Gurcke | Milad Alshomary | Henning Wachsmuth

The premises of an argument give evidence or other reasons to support a conclusion. However, the amount of support required depends on the generality of a conclusion, the nature of the individual premises, and similar. An argument whose premises make its conclusion rationally worthy to be drawn is called sufficient in argument quality research. Previous work tackled sufficiency assessment as a standard text classification problem, not modeling the inherent relation of premises and conclusion. In this paper, we hypothesize that the conclusion of a sufficient argument can be generated from its premises. To study this hypothesis, we explore the potential of assessing sufficiency based on the output of large-scale pre-trained language models. Our best model variant achieves an F1-score of .885, outperforming the previous state-of-the-art and being on par with human experts. While manual evaluation reveals the quality of the generated conclusions, their impact remains low ultimately.

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M-Arg: Multimodal Argument Mining Dataset for Political Debates with Audio and Transcripts
Rafael Mestre | Razvan Milicin | Stuart E. Middleton | Matt Ryan | Jiatong Zhu | Timothy J. Norman

Argumentation mining aims at extracting, analysing and modelling people’s arguments, but large, high-quality annotated datasets are limited, and no multimodal datasets exist for this task. In this paper, we present M-Arg, a multimodal argument mining dataset with a corpus of US 2020 presidential debates, annotated through crowd-sourced annotations. This dataset allows models to be trained to extract arguments from natural dialogue such as debates using information like the intonation and rhythm of the speaker. Our dataset contains 7 hours of annotated US presidential debates, 6527 utterances and 4104 relation labels, and we report results from different baseline models, namely a text-only model, an audio-only model and multimodal models that extract features from both text and audio. With accuracy reaching 0.86 in multimodal models, we find that audio features provide added value with respect to text-only models.

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Citizen Involvement in Urban Planning - How Can Municipalities Be Supported in Evaluating Public Participation Processes for Mobility Transitions?
Julia Romberg | Stefan Conrad

Public participation processes allow citizens to engage in municipal decision-making processes by expressing their opinions on specific issues. Municipalities often only have limited resources to analyze a possibly large amount of textual contributions that need to be evaluated in a timely and detailed manner. Automated support for the evaluation is therefore essential, e.g. to analyze arguments. In this paper, we address (A) the identification of argumentative discourse units and (B) their classification as major position or premise in German public participation processes. The objective of our work is to make argument mining viable for use in municipalities. We compare different argument mining approaches and develop a generic model that can successfully detect argument structures in different datasets of mobility-related urban planning. We introduce a new data corpus comprising five public participation processes. In our evaluation, we achieve high macro F1 scores (0.76 - 0.80 for the identification of argumentative units; 0.86 - 0.93 for their classification) on all datasets. Additionally, we improve previous results for the classification of argumentative units on a similar German online participation dataset.

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Argumentation Mining in Scientific Literature for Sustainable Development
Aris Fergadis | Dimitris Pappas | Antonia Karamolegkou | Haris Papageorgiou

Science, technology and innovation (STI) policies have evolved in the past decade. We are now progressing towards policies that are more aligned with sustainable development through integrating social, economic and environmental dimensions. In this new policy environment, the need to keep track of innovation from its conception in Science and Research has emerged. Argumentation mining, an interdisciplinary NLP field, gives rise to the required technologies. In this study, we present the first STI-driven multidisciplinary corpus of scientific abstracts annotated for argumentative units (AUs) on the sustainable development goals (SDGs) set by the United Nations (UN). AUs are the sentences conveying the Claim(s) reported in the author’s original research and the Evidence provided for support. We also present a set of strong, BERT-based neural baselines achieving an f1-score of 70.0 for Claim and 62.4 for Evidence identification evaluated with 10-fold cross-validation. To demonstrate the effectiveness of our models, we experiment with different test sets showing comparable performance across various SDG policy domains. Our dataset and models are publicly available for research purposes.

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Bayesian Argumentation-Scheme Networks: A Probabilistic Model of Argument Validity Facilitated by Argumentation Schemes
Takahiro Kondo | Koki Washio | Katsuhiko Hayashi | Yusuke Miyao

We propose a methodology for representing the reasoning structure of arguments using Bayesian networks and predicate logic facilitated by argumentation schemes. We express the meaning of text segments using predicate logic and map the boolean values of predicate logic expressions to nodes in a Bayesian network. The reasoning structure among text segments is described with a directed acyclic graph. While our formalism is highly expressive and capable of describing the informal logic of human arguments, it is too open-ended to actually build a network for an argument. It is not at all obvious which segment of argumentative text should be considered as a node in a Bayesian network, and how to decide the dependencies among nodes. To alleviate the difficulty, we provide abstract network fragments, called idioms, which represent typical argument justification patterns derived from argumentation schemes. The network construction process is decomposed into idiom selection, idiom instantiation, and idiom combination. We define 17 idioms in total by referring to argumentation schemes as well as analyzing actual arguments and fitting idioms to them. We also create a dataset consisting of pairs of an argumentative text and a corresponding Bayesian network. Our dataset contains about 2,400 pairs, which is large in the research area of argumentation schemes.

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Multilingual Counter Narrative Type Classification
Yi-Ling Chung | Marco Guerini | Rodrigo Agerri

The growing interest in employing counter narratives for hatred intervention brings with it a focus on dataset creation and automation strategies. In this scenario, learning to recognize counter narrative types from natural text is expected to be useful for applications such as hate speech countering, where operators from non-governmental organizations are supposed to answer to hate with several and diverse arguments that can be mined from online sources. This paper presents the first multilingual work on counter narrative type classification, evaluating SoTA pre-trained language models in monolingual, multilingual and cross-lingual settings. When considering a fine-grained annotation of counter narrative classes, we report strong baseline classification results for the majority of the counter narrative types, especially if we translate every language to English before cross-lingual prediction. This suggests that knowledge about counter narratives can be successfully transferred across languages.

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Predicting Moderation of Deliberative Arguments: Is Argument Quality the Key?
Neele Falk | Iman Jundi | Eva Maria Vecchi | Gabriella Lapesa

Human moderation is commonly employed in deliberative contexts (argumentation and discussion targeting a shared decision on an issue relevant to a group, e.g., citizens arguing on how to employ a shared budget). As the scale of discussion enlarges in online settings, the overall discussion quality risks to drop and moderation becomes more important to assist participants in having a cooperative and productive interaction. The scale also makes it more important to employ NLP methods for(semi-)automatic moderation, e.g. to prioritize when moderation is most needed. In this work, we make the first steps towards (semi-)automatic moderation by using state-of-the-art classification models to predict which posts require moderation, showing that while the task is undoubtedly difficult, performance is significantly above baseline. We further investigate whether argument quality is a key indicator of the need for moderation, showing that surprisingly, high quality arguments also trigger moderation. We make our code and data publicly available.

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Self-trained Pretrained Language Models for Evidence Detection
Mohamed Elaraby | Diane Litman

Argument role labeling is a fundamental task in Argument Mining research. However, such research often suffers from a lack of large-scale datasets labeled for argument roles such as evidence, which is crucial for neural model training. While large pretrained language models have somewhat alleviated the need for massive manually labeled datasets, how much these models can further benefit from self-training techniques hasn’t been widely explored in the literature in general and in Argument Mining specifically. In this work, we focus on self-trained language models (particularly BERT) for evidence detection. We provide a thorough investigation on how to utilize pseudo labels effectively in the self-training scheme. We also assess whether adding pseudo labels from an out-of-domain source can be beneficial. Experiments on sentence level evidence detection show that self-training can complement pretrained language models to provide performance improvements.

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Multi-task Learning in Argument Mining for Persuasive Online Discussions
Nhat Tran | Diane Litman

We utilize multi-task learning to improve argument mining in persuasive online discussions, in which both micro-level and macro-level argumentation must be taken into consideration. Our models learn to identify argument components and the relations between them at the same time. We also tackle the low-precision which arises from imbalanced relation data by experimenting with SMOTE and XGBoost. Our approaches improve over baselines that use the same pre-trained language model but process the argument component task and two relation tasks separately. Furthermore, our results suggest that the tasks to be incorporated into multi-task learning should be taken into consideration as using all relevant tasks does not always lead to the best performance.

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Overview of the 2021 Key Point Analysis Shared Task
Roni Friedman | Lena Dankin | Yufang Hou | Ranit Aharonov | Yoav Katz | Noam Slonim

We describe the 2021 Key Point Analysis (KPA-2021) shared task on key point analysis that we organized as a part of the 8th Workshop on Argument Mining (ArgMining 2021) at EMNLP 2021. We outline various approaches and discuss the results of the shared task. We expect the task and the findings reported in this paper to be relevant for researchers working on text summarization and argument mining.

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Matching The Statements: A Simple and Accurate Model for Key Point Analysis
Hoang Phan | Long Nguyen | Long Nguyen | Khanh Doan

Key Point Analysis (KPA) is one of the most essential tasks in building an Opinion Summarization system, which is capable of generating key points for a collection of arguments toward a particular topic. Furthermore, KPA allows quantifying the coverage of each summary by counting its matched arguments. With the aim of creating high-quality summaries, it is necessary to have an in-depth understanding of each individual argument as well as its universal semantic in a specified context. In this paper, we introduce a promising model, named Matching the Statements (MTS) that incorporates the discussed topic information into arguments/key points comprehension to fully understand their meanings, thus accurately performing ranking and retrieving best-match key points for an input argument. Our approach has achieved the 4th place in Track 1 of the Quantitative Summarization – Key Point Analysis Shared Task by IBM, yielding a competitive performance of 0.8956 (3rd) and 0.9632 (7th) strict and relaxed mean Average Precision, respectively.

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Modern Talking in Key Point Analysis: Key Point Matching using Pretrained Encoders
Jan Heinrich Reimer | Thi Kim Hanh Luu | Max Henze | Yamen Ajjour

We contribute to the ArgMining 2021 shared task on Quantitative Summarization and Key Point Analysis with two approaches for argument key point matching. For key point matching the task is to decide if a short key point matches the content of an argument with the same topic and stance towards the topic. We approach this task in two ways: First, we develop a simple rule-based baseline matcher by computing token overlap after removing stop words, stemming, and adding synonyms/antonyms. Second, we fine-tune pretrained BERT and RoBERTalanguage models as aregression classifier for only a single epoch. We manually examine errors of our proposed matcher models and find that long arguments are harder to classify. Our fine-tuned RoBERTa-Base model achieves a mean average precision score of 0.913, the best score for strict labels of all participating teams.

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Key Point Analysis via Contrastive Learning and Extractive Argument Summarization
Milad Alshomary | Timon Gurcke | Shahbaz Syed | Philipp Heinisch | Maximilian Spliethöver | Philipp Cimiano | Martin Potthast | Henning Wachsmuth

Key point analysis is the task of extracting a set of concise and high-level statements from a given collection of arguments, representing the gist of these arguments. This paper presents our proposed approach to the Key Point Analysis Shared Task, colocated with the 8th Workshop on Argument Mining. The approach integrates two complementary components. One component employs contrastive learning via a siamese neural network for matching arguments to key points; the other is a graph-based extractive summarization model for generating key points. In both automatic and manual evaluation, our approach was ranked best among all submissions to the shared task.

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Key Point Matching with Transformers
Emanuele Cosenza

This work aims at describing a solution for the Track 1 of the KPA 2021 shared task, analyzing different methodologies for the specific problem of key point matching. The analysis focuses on transformer based architectures, experimentally investigating the effectiveness of variants specifically tailored to the task.

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Team Enigma at ArgMining-EMNLP 2021: Leveraging Pre-trained Language Models for Key Point Matching
Manav Kapadnis | Sohan Patnaik | Siba Panigrahi | Varun Madhavan | Abhilash Nandy

We present the system description for our submission towards the Key Point Analysis Shared Task at ArgMining 2021. Track 1 of the shared task requires participants to develop methods to predict the match score between each pair of arguments and key points, provided they belong to the same topic under the same stance. We leveraged existing state of the art pre-trained language models along with incorporating additional data and features extracted from the inputs (topics, key points, and arguments) to improve performance. We were able to achieve mAP strict and mAP relaxed score of 0.872 and 0.966 respectively in the evaluation phase, securing 5th place on the leaderboard. In the post evaluation phase, we achieved a mAP strict and mAP relaxed score of 0.921 and 0.982 respectively.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Automatic Simultaneous Translation

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Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Automatic Simultaneous Translation
Hua Wu | Colin Cherry | Liang Huang | Zhongjun He | Qun Liu | Maha Elbayad | Mark Liberman | Haifeng Wang | Mingbo Ma | Ruiqing Zhang

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ICT’s System for AutoSimTrans 2021: Robust Char-Level Simultaneous Translation
Shaolei Zhang | Yang Feng

Simultaneous translation (ST) outputs the translation simultaneously while reading the input sentence, which is an important component of simultaneous interpretation. In this paper, we describe our submitted ST system, which won the first place in the streaming transcription input track of the Chinese-English translation task of AutoSimTrans 2021. Aiming at the robustness of ST, we first propose char-level simultaneous translation and applied wait-k policy on it. Meanwhile, we apply two data processing methods and combine two training methods for domain adaptation. Our method enhance the ST model with stronger robustness and domain adaptability. Experiments on streaming transcription show that our method outperforms the baseline at all latency, especially at low latency, the proposed method improves about 6 BLEU. Besides, ablation studies we conduct verify the effectiveness of each module in the proposed method.

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BIT’s system for AutoSimulTrans2021
Mengge Liu | Shuoying Chen | Minqin Li | Zhipeng Wang | Yuhang Guo

In this paper we introduce our Chinese-English simultaneous translation system participating in AutoSimulTrans2021. In simultaneous translation, translation quality and delay are both important. In order to reduce the translation delay, we cut the streaming-input source sentence into segments and translate the segments before the full sentence is received. In order to obtain high-quality translations, we pre-train a translation model with adequate corpus and fine-tune the model with domain adaptation and sentence length adaptation. The experimental results on the evaluation data show that our system performs better than the baseline system.

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XMU’s Simultaneous Translation System at NAACL 2021
Shuangtao Li | Jinming Hu | Boli Wang | Xiaodong Shi | Yidong Chen

This paper describes our two systems submitted to the simultaneous translation evaluation at the 2nd automatic simultaneous translation workshop.

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System Description on Automatic Simultaneous Translation Workshop
Linjie Chen | Jianzong Wang | Zhangcheng Huang | Xiongbin Ding | Jing Xiao

This paper shows our submission on the second automatic simultaneous translation workshop at NAACL2021. We participate in all the two directions of Chinese-to-English translation, Chinese audio→English text and Chinese text→English text. We do data filtering and model training techniques to get the best BLEU score and reduce the average lagging. We propose a two-stage simultaneous translation pipeline system which is composed of Quartznet and BPE-based transformer. We propose a competitive simultaneous translation system and achieves a BLEU score of 24.39 in the audio input track.

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BSTC: A Large-Scale Chinese-English Speech Translation Dataset
Ruiqing Zhang | Xiyang Wang | Chuanqiang Zhang | Zhongjun He | Hua Wu | Zhi Li | Haifeng Wang | Ying Chen | Qinfei Li

This paper presents BSTC (Baidu Speech Translation Corpus), a large-scale Chinese-English speech translation dataset. This dataset is constructed based on a collection of licensed videos of talks or lectures, including about 68 hours of Mandarin data, their manual transcripts and translations into English, as well as automated transcripts by an automatic speech recognition (ASR) model. We have further asked three experienced interpreters to simultaneously interpret the testing talks in a mock conference setting. This corpus is expected to promote the research of automatic simultaneous translation as well as the development of practical systems. We have organized simultaneous translation tasks and used this corpus to evaluate automatic simultaneous translation systems.

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Findings of the Second Workshop on Automatic Simultaneous Translation
Ruiqing Zhang | Chuanqiang Zhang | Zhongjun He | Hua Wu | Haifeng Wang

This paper presents the results of the shared task of the 2nd Workshop on Automatic Simultaneous Translation (AutoSimTrans). The task includes two tracks, one for text-to-text translation and one for speech-to-text, requiring participants to build systems to translate from either the source text or speech into the target text. Different from traditional machine translation, the AutoSimTrans shared task evaluates not only translation quality but also latency. We propose a metric “Monotonic Optimal Sequence” (MOS) considering both quality and latency to rank the submissions. We also discuss some important open issues in simultaneous translation.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 16th Workshop on Innovative Use of NLP for Building Educational Applications

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Proceedings of the 16th Workshop on Innovative Use of NLP for Building Educational Applications
Jill Burstein | Andrea Horbach | Ekaterina Kochmar | Ronja Laarmann-Quante | Claudia Leacock | Nitin Madnani | Ildikó Pilán | Helen Yannakoudakis | Torsten Zesch

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Negation Scope Resolution for Chinese as a Second Language
Mengyu Zhang | Weiqi Wang | Shuqiao Sun | Weiwei Sun

This paper studies Negation Scope Resolution (NSR) for Chinese as a Second Language (CSL), which shows many unique characteristics that distinguish itself from “standard” Chinese. We annotate a new moderate-sized corpus that covers two background L1 languages, viz. English and Japanese. We build a neural NSR system, which achieves a new state-of-the-art accuracy on English benchmark data. We leverage this system to gauge how successful NSR for CSL can be. Different native language backgrounds of language learners result in unequal cross-lingual transfer, which has a significant impact on processing second language data. In particular, manual annotation, empirical evaluation and error analysis indicate two non-obvious facts: 1) L2-Chinese, L1-Japanese data are more difficult to analyze and thus annotate than L2-Chinese, L1-English data; 2) computational models trained on L2-Chinese, L1-Japanese data perform better than models trained on L2-Chinese, L1-English data.

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Text Simplification by Tagging
Kostiantyn Omelianchuk | Vipul Raheja | Oleksandr Skurzhanskyi

Edit-based approaches have recently shown promising results on multiple monolingual sequence transduction tasks. In contrast to conventional sequence-to-sequence (Seq2Seq) models, which learn to generate text from scratch as they are trained on parallel corpora, these methods have proven to be much more effective since they are able to learn to make fast and accurate transformations while leveraging powerful pre-trained language models. Inspired by these ideas, we present TST, a simple and efficient Text Simplification system based on sequence Tagging, leveraging pre-trained Transformer-based encoders. Our system makes simplistic data augmentations and tweaks in training and inference on a pre-existing system, which makes it less reliant on large amounts of parallel training data, provides more control over the outputs and enables faster inference speeds. Our best model achieves near state-of-the-art performance on benchmark test datasets for the task. Since it is fully non-autoregressive, it achieves faster inference speeds by over 11 times than the current state-of-the-art text simplification system.

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Employing distributional semantics to organize task-focused vocabulary learning
Haemanth Santhi Ponnusamy | Detmar Meurers

How can a learner systematically prepare for reading a book they are interested in? In this paper, we explore how computational linguistic methods such as distributional semantics, morphological clustering, and exercise generation can be combined with graph-based learner models to answer this question both conceptually and in practice. Based on highly structured learner models and concepts from network analysis, the learner is guided to efficiently explore the targeted lexical space. They practice using multi-gap learning activities generated from the book. In sum, the approach combines computational linguistic methods with concepts from network analysis and tutoring systems to support learners in pursuing their individual reading task goals.

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Synthetic Data Generation for Grammatical Error Correction with Tagged Corruption Models
Felix Stahlberg | Shankar Kumar

Synthetic data generation is widely known to boost the accuracy of neural grammatical error correction (GEC) systems, but existing methods often lack diversity or are too simplistic to generate the broad range of grammatical errors made by human writers. In this work, we use error type tags from automatic annotation tools such as ERRANT to guide synthetic data generation. We compare several models that can produce an ungrammatical sentence given a clean sentence and an error type tag. We use these models to build a new, large synthetic pre-training data set with error tag frequency distributions matching a given development set. Our synthetic data set yields large and consistent gains, improving the state-of-the-art on the BEA-19 and CoNLL-14 test sets. We also show that our approach is particularly effective in adapting a GEC system, trained on mixed native and non-native English, to a native English test set, even surpassing real training data consisting of high-quality sentence pairs.

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Broad Linguistic Complexity Analysis for Greek Readability Classification
Savvas Chatzipanagiotidis | Maria Giagkou | Detmar Meurers

This paper explores the linguistic complexity of Greek textbooks as a readability classification task. We analyze textbook corpora for different school subjects and textbooks for Greek as a Second Language, covering a very wide spectrum of school age groups and proficiency levels. A broad range of quantifiable linguistic complexity features (lexical, morphological and syntactic) are extracted and calculated. Conducting experiments with different feature subsets, we show that the different linguistic dimensions contribute orthogonal information, each contributing towards the highest result achieved using all linguistic feature subsets. A readability classifier trained on this basis reaches a classification accuracy of 88.16% for the Greek as a Second Language corpus. To investigate the generalizability of the classification models, we also perform cross-corpus evaluations. We show that the model trained on the most varied text collection (for Greek as a school subject) generalizes best. In addition to advancing the state of the art for Greek readability analysis, the paper also contributes insights on the role of different feature sets and training setups for generalizable readability classification.

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Character Set Construction for Chinese Language Learning
Chak Yan Yeung | John Lee

To promote efficient learning of Chinese characters, pedagogical materials may present not only a single character, but a set of characters that are related in meaning and in written form. This paper investigates automatic construction of these character sets. The proposed model represents a character as averaged word vectors of common words containing the character. It then identifies sets of characters with high semantic similarity through clustering. Human evaluation shows that this representation outperforms direct use of character embeddings, and that the resulting character sets capture distinct semantic ranges.

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Identifying negative language transfer in learner errors using POS information
Leticia Farias Wanderley | Carrie Demmans Epp

A common mistake made by language learners is the misguided usage of first language rules when communicating in another language. In this paper, n-gram and recurrent neural network language models are used to represent language structures and detect when Chinese native speakers incorrectly transfer rules from their first language (i.e., Chinese) into their English writing. These models make it possible to inform corrective error feedback with error causes, such as negative language transfer. We report the results of our negative language detection experiments with n-gram and recurrent neural network models that were trained using part-of-speech tags. The best performing model achieves an F1-score of 0.51 when tasked with recognizing negative language transfer in English learner data.

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Document-level grammatical error correction
Zheng Yuan | Christopher Bryant

Document-level context can provide valuable information in grammatical error correction (GEC), which is crucial for correcting certain errors and resolving inconsistencies. In this paper, we investigate context-aware approaches and propose document-level GEC systems. Additionally, we employ a three-step training strategy to benefit from both sentence-level and document-level data. Our system outperforms previous document-level and all other NMT-based single-model systems, achieving state of the art on a common test set.

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Essay Quality Signals as Weak Supervision for Source-based Essay Scoring
Haoran Zhang | Diane Litman

Human essay grading is a laborious task that can consume much time and effort. Automated Essay Scoring (AES) has thus been proposed as a fast and effective solution to the problem of grading student writing at scale. However, because AES typically uses supervised machine learning, a human-graded essay corpus is still required to train the AES model. Unfortunately, such a graded corpus often does not exist, so creating a corpus for machine learning can also be a laborious task. This paper presents an investigation of replacing the use of human-labeled essay grades when training an AES system with two automatically available but weaker signals of essay quality: word count and topic distribution similarity. Experiments using two source-based essay scoring (evidence score) corpora show that while weak supervision does not yield a competitive result when training a neural source-based AES model, it can be used to successfully extract Topical Components (TCs) from a source text, which are required by a supervised feature-based AES model. In particular, results show that feature-based AES performance is comparable with either automatically or manually constructed TCs.

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Parsing Argumentative Structure in English-as-Foreign-Language Essays
Jan Wira Gotama Putra | Simone Teufel | Takenobu Tokunaga

This paper presents a study on parsing the argumentative structure in English-as-foreign-language (EFL) essays, which are inherently noisy. The parsing process consists of two steps, linking related sentences and then labelling their relations. We experiment with several deep learning architectures to address each task independently. In the sentence linking task, a biaffine model performed the best. In the relation labelling task, a fine-tuned BERT model performed the best. Two sentence encoders are employed, and we observed that non-fine-tuning models generally performed better when using Sentence-BERT as opposed to BERT encoder. We trained our models using two types of parallel texts: original noisy EFL essays and those improved by annotators, then evaluate them on the original essays. The experiment shows that an end-to-end in-domain system achieved an accuracy of .341. On the other hand, the cross-domain system achieved 94% performance of the in-domain system. This signals that well-written texts can also be useful to train argument mining system for noisy texts.

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Training and Domain Adaptation for Supervised Text Segmentation
Goran Glavaš | Ananya Ganesh | Swapna Somasundaran

Unlike traditional unsupervised text segmentation methods, recent supervised segmentation models rely on Wikipedia as the source of large-scale segmentation supervision. These models have, however, predominantly been evaluated on the in-domain (Wikipedia-based) test sets, preventing conclusions about their general segmentation efficacy. In this work, we focus on the domain transfer performance of supervised neural text segmentation in the educational domain. To this end, we first introduce K12Seg, a new dataset for evaluation of supervised segmentation, created from educational reading material for grade-1 to college-level students. We then benchmark a hierarchical text segmentation model (HITS), based on RoBERTa, in both in-domain and domain-transfer segmentation experiments. While HITS produces state-of-the-art in-domain performance (on three Wikipedia-based test sets), we show that, subject to the standard full-blown fine-tuning, it is susceptible to domain overfitting. We identify adapter-based fine-tuning as a remedy that substantially improves transfer performance.

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Data Strategies for Low-Resource Grammatical Error Correction
Simon Flachs | Felix Stahlberg | Shankar Kumar

Grammatical Error Correction (GEC) is a task that has been extensively investigated for the English language. However, for low-resource languages the best practices for training GEC systems have not yet been systematically determined. We investigate how best to take advantage of existing data sources for improving GEC systems for languages with limited quantities of high quality training data. We show that methods for generating artificial training data for GEC can benefit from including morphological errors. We also demonstrate that noisy error correction data gathered from Wikipedia revision histories and the language learning website Lang8, are valuable data sources. Finally, we show that GEC systems pre-trained on noisy data sources can be fine-tuned effectively using small amounts of high quality, human-annotated data.

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Towards a Data Analytics Pipeline for the Visualisation of Complexity Metrics in L2 writings
Thomas Gaillat | Anas Knefati | Antoine Lafontaine

We present the design of a tool for the visualisation of linguistic complexity in second language (L2) learner writings. We show how metrics can be exploited to visualise complexity in L2 writings in relation to CEFR levels.

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Estonian as a Second Language Teacher’s Tools
Tiiu Üksik | Jelena Kallas | Kristina Koppel | Katrin Tsepelina | Raili Pool

The paper presents the results of the project “Teacher’s Tools” (et Õpetaja tööriistad) published as a subpage of the new language portal Sõnaveeb developed by the Institute of the Estonian Language. The toolbox includes four modules: vocabulary, grammar, communicative language activities and text evaluation. The tools are aimed to help teachers and specialists of Estonian as a second language plan courses, create new educational materials, exercises and tests based on CEFR level descriptions.

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Assessing Grammatical Correctness in Language Learning
Anisia Katinskaia | Roman Yangarber

We present experiments on assessing the grammatical correctness of learners’ answers in a language-learning System (references to the System, and the links to the released data and code are withheld for anonymity). In particular, we explore the problem of detecting alternative-correct answers: when more than one inflected form of a lemma fits syntactically and semantically in a given context. We approach the problem with the methods for grammatical error detection (GED), since we hypothesize that models for detecting grammatical mistakes can assess the correctness of potential alternative answers in a learning setting. Due to the paucity of training data, we explore the ability of pre-trained BERT to detect grammatical errors and then fine-tune it using synthetic training data. In this work, we focus on errors in inflection. Our experiments show a. that pre-trained BERT performs worse at detecting grammatical irregularities for Russian than for English; b. that fine-tuned BERT yields promising results on assessing the correctness of grammatical exercises; and c. establish a new benchmark for Russian. To further investigate its performance, we compare fine-tuned BERT with one of the state-of-the-art models for GED (Bell et al., 2019) on our dataset and RULEC-GEC (Rozovskaya and Roth, 2019). We release the manually annotated learner dataset, used for testing, for general use.

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On the application of Transformers for estimating the difficulty of Multiple-Choice Questions from text
Luca Benedetto | Giovanni Aradelli | Paolo Cremonesi | Andrea Cappelli | Andrea Giussani | Roberto Turrin

Classical approaches to question calibration are either subjective or require newly created questions to be deployed before being calibrated. Recent works explored the possibility of estimating question difficulty from text, but did not experiment with the most recent NLP models, in particular Transformers. In this paper, we compare the performance of previous literature with Transformer models experimenting on a public and a private dataset. Our experimental results show that Transformers are capable of outperforming previously proposed models. Moreover, if an additional corpus of related documents is available, Transformers can leverage that information to further improve calibration accuracy. We characterize the dependence of the model performance on some properties of the questions, showing that it performs best on questions ending with a question mark and Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQs) with one correct choice.

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Automatically Generating Cause-and-Effect Questions from Passages
Katherine Stasaski | Manav Rathod | Tony Tu | Yunfang Xiao | Marti A. Hearst

Automated question generation has the potential to greatly aid in education applications, such as online study aids to check understanding of readings. The state-of-the-art in neural question generation has advanced greatly, due in part to the availability of large datasets of question-answer pairs. However, the questions generated are often surface-level and not challenging for a human to answer. To develop more challenging questions, we propose the novel task of cause-and-effect question generation. We build a pipeline that extracts causal relations from passages of input text, and feeds these as input to a state-of-the-art neural question generator. The extractor is based on prior work that classifies causal relations by linguistic category (Cao et al., 2016; Altenberg, 1984). This work results in a new, publicly available collection of cause-and-effect questions. We evaluate via both automatic and manual metrics and find performance improves for both question generation and question answering when we utilize a small auxiliary data source of cause-and-effect questions for fine-tuning. Our approach can be easily applied to generate cause-and-effect questions from other text collections and educational material, allowing for adaptable large-scale generation of cause-and-effect questions.

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Interventions Recommendation: Professionals’ Observations Analysis in Special Needs Education
Javier Muñoz | Felipe Bravo-Marquez

We present a new task in educational NLP, recommend the best interventions to help special needs education professionals to work with students with different disabilities. We use the professionals’ observations of the students together with the students diagnosis and other chosen interventions to predict the best interventions for Chilean special needs students.

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C-Test Collector: A Proficiency Testing Application to Collect Training Data for C-Tests
Christian Haring | Rene Lehmann | Andrea Horbach | Torsten Zesch

We present the C-Test Collector, a web-based tool that allows language learners to test their proficiency level using c-tests. Our tool collects anonymized data on test performance, which allows teachers to gain insights into common error patterns. At the same time, it allows NLP researchers to collect training data for being able to generate c-test variants at the desired difficulty level.

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Virtual Pre-Service Teacher Assessment and Feedback via Conversational Agents
Debajyoti Datta | Maria Phillips | James P. Bywater | Jennifer Chiu | Ginger S. Watson | Laura Barnes | Donald Brown

Conversational agents and assistants have been used for decades to facilitate learning. There are many examples of conversational agents used for educational and training purposes in K-12, higher education, healthcare, the military, and private industry settings. The most common forms of conversational agents in education are teaching agents that directly teach and support learning, peer agents that serve as knowledgeable learning companions to guide learners in the learning process, and teachable agents that function as a novice or less-knowledgeable student trained and taught by a learner who learns by teaching. The Instructional Quality Assessment (IQA) provides a robust framework to evaluate reading comprehension and mathematics instruction. We developed a system for pre-service teachers, individuals in a teacher preparation program, to evaluate teaching instruction quality based on a modified interpretation of IQA metrics. Our demonstration and approach take advantage of recent advances in Natural Language Processing (NLP) and deep learning for each dialogue system component. We built an open-source conversational agent system to engage pre-service teachers in a specific mathematical scenario focused on scale factor with the aim to provide feedback on pre-service teachers’ questioning strategies. We believe our system is not only practical for teacher education programs but can also enable other researchers to build new educational scenarios with minimal effort.

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Automated Classification of Written Proficiency Levels on the CEFR-Scale through Complexity Contours and RNNs
Elma Kerz | Daniel Wiechmann | Yu Qiao | Emma Tseng | Marcus Ströbel

Automatically predicting the level of second language (L2) learner proficiency is an emerging topic of interest and research based on machine learning approaches to language learning and development. The key to the present paper is the combined use of what we refer to as ‘complexity contours’, a series of measurements of indices of L2 proficiency obtained by a computational tool that implements a sliding window technique, and recurrent neural network (RNN) classifiers that adequately capture the sequential information in those contours. We used the EF-Cambridge Open Language Database (Geertzen et al. 2013) with its labelled Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) levels (Council of Europe 2018) to predict six classes of L2 proficiency levels (A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2) in the assessment of writing skills. Our experiments demonstrate that an RNN classifier trained on complexity contours achieves higher classification accuracy than one trained on text-average complexity scores. In a secondary experiment, we determined the relative importance of features from four distinct categories through a sensitivity-based pruning technique. Our approach makes an important contribution to the field of automated identification of language proficiency levels, more specifically, to the increasing efforts towards the empirical validation of CEFR levels.

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“Sharks are not the threat humans are”: Argument Component Segmentation in School Student Essays
Tariq Alhindi | Debanjan Ghosh

Argument mining is often addressed by a pipeline method where segmentation of text into argumentative units is conducted first and proceeded by an argument component identification task. In this research, we apply a token-level classification to identify claim and premise tokens from a new corpus of argumentative essays written by middle school students. To this end, we compare a variety of state-of-the-art models such as discrete features and deep learning architectures (e.g., BiLSTM networks and BERT-based architectures) to identify the argument components. We demonstrate that a BERT-based multi-task learning architecture (i.e., token and sentence level classification) adaptively pretrained on a relevant unlabeled dataset obtains the best results.

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Using Linguistic Features to Predict the Response Process Complexity Associated with Answering Clinical MCQs
Victoria Yaneva | Daniel Jurich | Le An Ha | Peter Baldwin

This study examines the relationship between the linguistic characteristics of a test item and the complexity of the response process required to answer it correctly. Using data from a large-scale medical licensing exam, clustering methods identified items that were similar with respect to their relative difficulty and relative response-time intensiveness to create low response process complexity and high response process complexity item classes. Interpretable models were used to investigate the linguistic features that best differentiated between these classes from a descriptive and predictive framework. Results suggest that nuanced features such as the number of ambiguous medical terms help explain response process complexity beyond superficial item characteristics such as word count. Yet, although linguistic features carry signal relevant to response process complexity, the classification of individual items remains challenging.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 20th Workshop on Biomedical Language Processing

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Proceedings of the 20th Workshop on Biomedical Language Processing
Dina Demner-Fushman | Kevin Bretonnel Cohen | Sophia Ananiadou | Junichi Tsujii

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Improving BERT Model Using Contrastive Learning for Biomedical Relation Extraction
Peng Su | Yifan Peng | K. Vijay-Shanker

Contrastive learning has been used to learn a high-quality representation of the image in computer vision. However, contrastive learning is not widely utilized in natural language processing due to the lack of a general method of data augmentation for text data. In this work, we explore the method of employing contrastive learning to improve the text representation from the BERT model for relation extraction. The key knob of our framework is a unique contrastive pre-training step tailored for the relation extraction tasks by seamlessly integrating linguistic knowledge into the data augmentation. Furthermore, we investigate how large-scale data constructed from the external knowledge bases can enhance the generality of contrastive pre-training of BERT. The experimental results on three relation extraction benchmark datasets demonstrate that our method can improve the BERT model representation and achieve state-of-the-art performance. In addition, we explore the interpretability of models by showing that BERT with contrastive pre-training relies more on rationales for prediction. Our code and data are publicly available at: https://github.com/AnonymousForNow.

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Triplet-Trained Vector Space and Sieve-Based Search Improve Biomedical Concept Normalization
Dongfang Xu | Steven Bethard

Concept normalization, the task of linking textual mentions of concepts to concepts in an ontology, is critical for mining and analyzing biomedical texts. We propose a vector-space model for concept normalization, where mentions and concepts are encoded via transformer networks that are trained via a triplet objective with online hard triplet mining. The transformer networks refine existing pre-trained models, and the online triplet mining makes training efficient even with hundreds of thousands of concepts by sampling training triples within each mini-batch. We introduce a variety of strategies for searching with the trained vector-space model, including approaches that incorporate domain-specific synonyms at search time with no model retraining. Across five datasets, our models that are trained only once on their corresponding ontologies are within 3 points of state-of-the-art models that are retrained for each new domain. Our models can also be trained for each domain, achieving new state-of-the-art on multiple datasets.

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Scalable Few-Shot Learning of Robust Biomedical Name Representations
Pieter Fivez | Simon Suster | Walter Daelemans

Recent research on robust representations of biomedical names has focused on modeling large amounts of fine-grained conceptual distinctions using complex neural encoders. In this paper, we explore the opposite paradigm: training a simple encoder architecture using only small sets of names sampled from high-level biomedical concepts. Our encoder post-processes pretrained representations of biomedical names, and is effective for various types of input representations, both domain-specific or unsupervised. We validate our proposed few-shot learning approach on multiple biomedical relatedness benchmarks, and show that it allows for continual learning, where we accumulate information from various conceptual hierarchies to consistently improve encoder performance. Given these findings, we propose our approach as a low-cost alternative for exploring the impact of conceptual distinctions on robust biomedical name representations.

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SAFFRON: tranSfer leArning For Food-disease RelatiOn extractioN
Gjorgjina Cenikj | Tome Eftimov | Barbara Koroušić Seljak

The accelerating growth of big data in the biomedical domain, with an endless amount of electronic health records and more than 30 million citations and abstracts in PubMed, introduces the need for automatic structuring of textual biomedical data. In this paper, we develop a method for detecting relations between food and disease entities from raw text. Due to the lack of annotated data on food with respect to health, we explore the feasibility of transfer learning by training BERT-based models on existing datasets annotated for the presence of cause and treat relations among different types of biomedical entities, and using them to recognize the same relations between food and disease entities in a dataset created for the purposes of this study. The best models achieve macro averaged F1 scores of 0.847 and 0.900 for the cause and treat relations, respectively.

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Are we there yet? Exploring clinical domain knowledge of BERT models
Madhumita Sushil | Simon Suster | Walter Daelemans

We explore whether state-of-the-art BERT models encode sufficient domain knowledge to correctly perform domain-specific inference. Although BERT implementations such as BioBERT are better at domain-based reasoning than those trained on general-domain corpora, there is still a wide margin compared to human performance on these tasks. To bridge this gap, we explore whether supplementing textual domain knowledge in the medical NLI task: a) by further language model pretraining on the medical domain corpora, b) by means of lexical match algorithms such as the BM25 algorithm, c) by supplementing lexical retrieval with dependency relations, or d) by using a trained retriever module, can push this performance closer to that of humans. We do not find any significant difference between knowledge supplemented classification as opposed to the baseline BERT models, however. This is contrary to the results for evidence retrieval on other tasks such as open domain question answering (QA). By examining the retrieval output, we show that the methods fail due to unreliable knowledge retrieval for complex domain-specific reasoning. We conclude that the task of unsupervised text retrieval to bridge the gap in existing information to facilitate inference is more complex than what the state-of-the-art methods can solve, and warrants extensive research in the future.

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Towards BERT-based Automatic ICD Coding: Limitations and Opportunities
Damian Pascual | Sandro Luck | Roger Wattenhofer

Automatic ICD coding is the task of assigning codes from the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) to medical notes. These codes describe the state of the patient and have multiple applications, e.g., computer-assisted diagnosis or epidemiological studies. ICD coding is a challenging task due to the complexity and length of medical notes. Unlike the general trend in language processing, no transformer model has been reported to reach high performance on this task. Here, we investigate in detail ICD coding using PubMedBERT, a state-of-the-art transformer model for biomedical language understanding. We find that the difficulty of fine-tuning the model on long pieces of text is the main limitation for BERT-based models on ICD coding. We run extensive experiments and show that despite the gap with current state-of-the-art, pretrained transformers can reach competitive performance using relatively small portions of text. We point at better methods to aggregate information from long texts as the main need for improving BERT-based ICD coding.

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emrKBQA: A Clinical Knowledge-Base Question Answering Dataset
Preethi Raghavan | Jennifer J Liang | Diwakar Mahajan | Rachita Chandra | Peter Szolovits

We present emrKBQA, a dataset for answering physician questions from a structured patient record. It consists of questions, logical forms and answers. The questions and logical forms are generated based on real-world physician questions and are slot-filled and answered from patients in the MIMIC-III KB through a semi-automated process. This community-shared release consists of over 940000 question, logical form and answer triplets with 389 types of questions and ~7.5 paraphrases per question type. We perform experiments to validate the quality of the dataset and set benchmarks for question to logical form learning that helps answer questions on this dataset.

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Overview of the MEDIQA 2021 Shared Task on Summarization in the Medical Domain
Asma Ben Abacha | Yassine Mrabet | Yuhao Zhang | Chaitanya Shivade | Curtis Langlotz | Dina Demner-Fushman

The MEDIQA 2021 shared tasks at the BioNLP 2021 workshop addressed three tasks on summarization for medical text: (i) a question summarization task aimed at exploring new approaches to understanding complex real-world consumer health queries, (ii) a multi-answer summarization task that targeted aggregation of multiple relevant answers to a biomedical question into one concise and relevant answer, and (iii) a radiology report summarization task addressing the development of clinically relevant impressions from radiology report findings. Thirty-five teams participated in these shared tasks with sixteen working notes submitted (fifteen accepted) describing a wide variety of models developed and tested on the shared and external datasets. In this paper, we describe the tasks, the datasets, the models and techniques developed by various teams, the results of the evaluation, and a study of correlations among various summarization evaluation measures. We hope that these shared tasks will bring new research and insights in biomedical text summarization and evaluation.

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WBI at MEDIQA 2021: Summarizing Consumer Health Questions with Generative Transformers
Mario Sänger | Leon Weber | Ulf Leser

This paper describes our contribution for the MEDIQA-2021 Task 1 question summarization competition. We model the task as conditional generation problem. Our concrete pipeline performs a finetuning of the large pretrained generative transformers PEGASUS (Zhang et al.,2020a) and BART (Lewis et al.,2020). We used the resulting models as strong baselines and experimented with (i) integrating structured knowledge via entity embeddings, (ii) ensembling multiple generative models with the generator-discriminator framework and (iii) disentangling summarization and interrogative prediction to achieve further improvements. Our best performing model, a fine-tuned vanilla PEGASUS, reached the second place in the competition with an ROUGE-2-F1 score of 15.99. We observed that all of our additional measures hurt performance (up to 5.2 pp) on the official test set. In course of a post-hoc experimental analysis which uses a larger validation set results indicate slight performance improvements through the proposed extensions. However, further analysis is need to provide stronger evidence.

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paht_nlp @ MEDIQA 2021: Multi-grained Query Focused Multi-Answer Summarization
Wei Zhu | Yilong He | Ling Chai | Yunxiao Fan | Yuan Ni | Guotong Xie | Xiaoling Wang

In this article, we describe our systems for the MEDIQA 2021 Shared Tasks. First, we will describe our method for the second task, Multi-Answer Summarization (MAS). For extractive summarization, two series of methods are applied. The first one follows (CITATION). First a RoBERTa model is first applied to give a local ranking of the candidate sentences. Then a Markov Chain model is applied to evaluate the sentences globally. The second method applies cross-sentence contextualization to improve the local ranking and discard the global ranking step. Our methods achieve the 1st Place in the MAS task. For the question summarization (QS) and radiology report summarization (RRS) tasks, we explore how end-to-end pre-trained seq2seq model perform. A series of tricks for improving the fine-tuning performances are validated.

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BDKG at MEDIQA 2021: System Report for the Radiology Report Summarization Task
Songtai Dai | Quan Wang | Yajuan Lyu | Yong Zhu

This paper presents our winning system at the Radiology Report Summarization track of the MEDIQA 2021 shared task. Radiology report summarization automatically summarizes radiology findings into free-text impressions. This year’s task emphasizes the generalization and transfer ability of participating systems. Our system is built upon a pre-trained Transformer encoder-decoder architecture, i.e., PEGASUS, deployed with an additional domain adaptation module to particularly handle the transfer and generalization issue. Heuristics like ensemble and text normalization are also used. Our system is conceptually simple yet highly effective, achieving a ROUGE-2 score of 0.436 on test set and ranked the 1st place among all participating systems.

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damo_nlp at MEDIQA 2021: Knowledge-based Preprocessing and Coverage-oriented Reranking for Medical Question Summarization
Yifan He | Mosha Chen | Songfang Huang

Medical question summarization is an important but difficult task, where the input is often complex and erroneous while annotated data is expensive to acquire. We report our participation in the MEDIQA 2021 question summarization task in which we are required to address these challenges. We start from pre-trained conditional generative language models, use knowledge bases to help correct input errors, and rerank single system outputs to boost coverage. Experimental results show significant improvement in string-based metrics.

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Stress Test Evaluation of Biomedical Word Embeddings
Vladimir Araujo | Andrés Carvallo | Carlos Aspillaga | Camilo Thorne | Denis Parra

The success of pretrained word embeddings has motivated their use in the biomedical domain, with contextualized embeddings yielding remarkable results in several biomedical NLP tasks. However, there is a lack of research on quantifying their behavior under severe “stress” scenarios. In this work, we systematically evaluate three language models with adversarial examples – automatically constructed tests that allow us to examine how robust the models are. We propose two types of stress scenarios focused on the biomedical named entity recognition (NER) task, one inspired by spelling errors and another based on the use of synonyms for medical terms. Our experiments with three benchmarks show that the performance of the original models decreases considerably, in addition to revealing their weaknesses and strengths. Finally, we show that adversarial training causes the models to improve their robustness and even to exceed the original performance in some cases.

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BLAR: Biomedical Local Acronym Resolver
William Hogan | Yoshiki Vazquez Baeza | Yannis Katsis | Tyler Baldwin | Ho-Cheol Kim | Chun-Nan Hsu

NLP has emerged as an essential tool to extract knowledge from the exponentially increasing volumes of biomedical texts. Many NLP tasks, such as named entity recognition and named entity normalization, are especially challenging in the biomedical domain partly because of the prolific use of acronyms. Long names for diseases, bacteria, and chemicals are often replaced by acronyms. We propose Biomedical Local Acronym Resolver (BLAR), a high-performing acronym resolver that leverages state-of-the-art (SOTA) pre-trained language models to accurately resolve local acronyms in biomedical texts. We test BLAR on the Ab3P corpus and achieve state-of-the-art results compared to the current best-performing local acronym resolution algorithms and models.

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Claim Detection in Biomedical Twitter Posts
Amelie Wührl | Roman Klinger

Social media contains unfiltered and unique information, which is potentially of great value, but, in the case of misinformation, can also do great harm. With regards to biomedical topics, false information can be particularly dangerous. Methods of automatic fact-checking and fake news detection address this problem, but have not been applied to the biomedical domain in social media yet. We aim to fill this research gap and annotate a corpus of 1200 tweets for implicit and explicit biomedical claims (the latter also with span annotations for the claim phrase). With this corpus, which we sample to be related to COVID-19, measles, cystic fibrosis, and depression, we develop baseline models which detect tweets that contain a claim automatically. Our analyses reveal that biomedical tweets are densely populated with claims (45 % in a corpus sampled to contain 1200 tweets focused on the domains mentioned above). Baseline classification experiments with embedding-based classifiers and BERT-based transfer learning demonstrate that the detection is challenging, however, shows acceptable performance for the identification of explicit expressions of claims. Implicit claim tweets are more challenging to detect.

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BioELECTRA:Pretrained Biomedical text Encoder using Discriminators
Kamal raj Kanakarajan | Bhuvana Kundumani | Malaikannan Sankarasubbu

Recent advancements in pretraining strategies in NLP have shown a significant improvement in the performance of models on various text mining tasks. We apply ‘replaced token detection’ pretraining technique proposed by ELECTRA and pretrain a biomedical language model from scratch using biomedical text and vocabulary. We introduce BioELECTRA, a biomedical domain-specific language encoder model that adapts ELECTRA for the Biomedical domain. WE evaluate our model on the BLURB and BLUE biomedical NLP benchmarks. BioELECTRA outperforms the previous models and achieves state of the art (SOTA) on all the 13 datasets in BLURB benchmark and on all the 4 Clinical datasets from BLUE Benchmark across 7 different NLP tasks. BioELECTRA pretrained on PubMed and PMC full text articles performs very well on Clinical datasets as well. BioELECTRA achieves new SOTA 86.34%(1.39% accuracy improvement) on MedNLI and 64% (2.98% accuracy improvement) on PubMedQA dataset.

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Word centrality constrained representation for keyphrase extraction
Zelalem Gero | Joyce Ho

To keep pace with the increased generation and digitization of documents, automated methods that can improve search, discovery and mining of the vast body of literature are essential. Keyphrases provide a concise representation by identifying salient concepts in a document. Various supervised approaches model keyphrase extraction using local context to predict the label for each token and perform much better than the unsupervised counterparts. Unfortunately, this method fails for short documents where the context is unclear. Moreover, keyphrases, which are usually the gist of a document, need to be the central theme. We propose a new extraction model that introduces a centrality constraint to enrich the word representation of a Bidirectional long short-term memory. Performance evaluation on 2 publicly available datasets demonstrate our model outperforms existing state-of-the art approaches.

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End-to-end Biomedical Entity Linking with Span-based Dictionary Matching
Shogo Ujiie | Hayate Iso | Shuntaro Yada | Shoko Wakamiya | Eiji Aramaki

Disease name recognition and normalization is a fundamental process in biomedical text mining. Recently, neural joint learning of both tasks has been proposed to utilize the mutual benefits. While this approach achieves high performance, disease concepts that do not appear in the training dataset cannot be accurately predicted. This study introduces a novel end-to-end approach that combines span representations with dictionary-matching features to address this problem. Our model handles unseen concepts by referring to a dictionary while maintaining the performance of neural network-based models. Experiments using two major datasaets demonstrate that our model achieved competitive results with strong baselines, especially for unseen concepts during training.

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Word-Level Alignment of Paper Documents with their Electronic Full-Text Counterparts
Mark-Christoph Müller | Sucheta Ghosh | Ulrike Wittig | Maja Rey

We describe a simple procedure for the automatic creation of word-level alignments between printed documents and their respective full-text versions. The procedure is unsupervised, uses standard, off-the-shelf components only, and reaches an F-score of 85.01 in the basic setup and up to 86.63 when using pre- and post-processing. Potential areas of application are manual database curation (incl. document triage) and biomedical expression OCR.

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Improving Biomedical Pretrained Language Models with Knowledge
Zheng Yuan | Yijia Liu | Chuanqi Tan | Songfang Huang | Fei Huang

Pretrained language models have shown success in many natural language processing tasks. Many works explore to incorporate the knowledge into the language models. In the biomedical domain, experts have taken decades of effort on building large-scale knowledge bases. For example, UMLS contains millions of entities with their synonyms and defines hundreds of relations among entities. Leveraging this knowledge can benefit a variety of downstream tasks such as named entity recognition and relation extraction. To this end, we propose KeBioLM, a biomedical pretrained language model that explicitly leverages knowledge from the UMLS knowledge bases. Specifically, we extract entities from PubMed abstracts and link them to UMLS. We then train a knowledge-aware language model that firstly applies a text-only encoding layer to learn entity representation and then applies a text-entity fusion encoding to aggregate entity representation. In addition, we add two training objectives as entity detection and entity linking. Experiments on the named entity recognition and relation extraction tasks from the BLURB benchmark demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach. Further analysis on a collected probing dataset shows that our model has better ability to model medical knowledge.

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EntityBERT: Entity-centric Masking Strategy for Model Pretraining for the Clinical Domain
Chen Lin | Timothy Miller | Dmitriy Dligach | Steven Bethard | Guergana Savova

Transformer-based neural language models have led to breakthroughs for a variety of natural language processing (NLP) tasks. However, most models are pretrained on general domain data. We propose a methodology to produce a model focused on the clinical domain: continued pretraining of a model with a broad representation of biomedical terminology (PubMedBERT) on a clinical corpus along with a novel entity-centric masking strategy to infuse domain knowledge in the learning process. We show that such a model achieves superior results on clinical extraction tasks by comparing our entity-centric masking strategy with classic random masking on three clinical NLP tasks: cross-domain negation detection, document time relation (DocTimeRel) classification, and temporal relation extraction. We also evaluate our models on the PubMedQA dataset to measure the models’ performance on a non-entity-centric task in the biomedical domain. The language addressed in this work is English.

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Contextual explanation rules for neural clinical classifiers
Madhumita Sushil | Simon Suster | Walter Daelemans

Several previous studies on explanation for recurrent neural networks focus on approaches that find the most important input segments for a network as its explanations. In that case, the manner in which these input segments combine with each other to form an explanatory pattern remains unknown. To overcome this, some previous work tries to find patterns (called rules) in the data that explain neural outputs. However, their explanations are often insensitive to model parameters, which limits the scalability of text explanations. To overcome these limitations, we propose a pipeline to explain RNNs by means of decision lists (also called rules) over skipgrams. For evaluation of explanations, we create a synthetic sepsis-identification dataset, as well as apply our technique on additional clinical and sentiment analysis datasets. We find that our technique persistently achieves high explanation fidelity and qualitatively interpretable rules.

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Exploring Word Segmentation and Medical Concept Recognition for Chinese Medical Texts
Yang Liu | Yuanhe Tian | Tsung-Hui Chang | Song Wu | Xiang Wan | Yan Song

Chinese word segmentation (CWS) and medical concept recognition are two fundamental tasks to process Chinese electronic medical records (EMRs) and play important roles in downstream tasks for understanding Chinese EMRs. One challenge to these tasks is the lack of medical domain datasets with high-quality annotations, especially medical-related tags that reveal the characteristics of Chinese EMRs. In this paper, we collected a Chinese EMR corpus, namely, ACEMR, with human annotations for Chinese word segmentation and EMR-related tags. On the ACEMR corpus, we run well-known models (i.e., BiLSTM, BERT, and ZEN) and existing state-of-the-art systems (e.g., WMSeg and TwASP) for CWS and medical concept recognition. Experimental results demonstrate the necessity of building a dedicated medical dataset and show that models that leverage extra resources achieve the best performance for both tasks, which provides certain guidance for future studies on model selection in the medical domain.

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BioM-Transformers: Building Large Biomedical Language Models with BERT, ALBERT and ELECTRA
Sultan Alrowili | Vijay Shanker

The impact of design choices on the performance of biomedical language models recently has been a subject for investigation. In this paper, we empirically study biomedical domain adaptation with large transformer models using different design choices. We evaluate the performance of our pretrained models against other existing biomedical language models in the literature. Our results show that we achieve state-of-the-art results on several biomedical domain tasks despite using similar or less computational cost compared to other models in the literature. Our findings highlight the significant effect of design choices on improving the performance of biomedical language models.

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Semi-Supervised Language Models for Identification of Personal Health Experiential from Twitter Data: A Case for Medication Effects
Minghao Zhu | Keyuan Jiang

First-hand experience related to any changes of one’s health condition and understanding such experience can play an important role in advancing medical science and healthcare. Monitoring the safe use of medication drugs is an important task of pharmacovigilance, and first-hand experience of effects about consumers’ medication intake can be valuable to gain insight into how our human body reacts to medications. Social media have been considered as a possible alternative data source for gathering personal experience with medications posted by users. Identifying personal experience tweets is a challenging classification task, and efforts have made to tackle the challenges using supervised approaches requiring annotated data. There exists abundance of unlabeled Twitter data, and being able to use such data for training without suffering in classification performance is of great value, which can reduce the cost of laborious annotation process. We investigated two semi-supervised learning methods, with different mixes of labeled and unlabeled data in the training set, to understand the impact on classification performance. Our results from both pseudo-label and consistency regularization methods show that both methods generated a noticeable improvement in F1 score when the labeled set was small, and consistency regularization could still provide a small gain even a larger labeled set was used.

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Context-aware query design combines knowledge and data for efficient reading and reasoning
Emilee Holtzapple | Brent Cochran | Natasa Miskov-Zivanov

The amount of biomedical literature has vastly increased over the past few decades. As a result, the sheer quantity of accessible information is overwhelming, and complicates manual information retrieval. Automated methods seek to speed up information retrieval from biomedical literature. However, such automated methods are still too time-intensive to survey all existing biomedical literature. We present a methodology for automatically generating literature queries that select relevant papers based on biological data. By using differentially expressed genes to inform our literature searches, we focus information extraction on mechanistic signaling details that are crucial for the disease or context of interest.

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Measuring the relative importance of full text sections for information retrieval from scientific literature.
Lana Yeganova | Won Gyu Kim | Donald Comeau | W John Wilbur | Zhiyong Lu

With the growing availability of full-text articles, integrating abstracts and full texts of documents into a unified representation is essential for comprehensive search of scientific literature. However, previous studies have shown that naïvely merging abstracts with full texts of articles does not consistently yield better performance. Balancing the contribution of query terms appearing in the abstract and in sections of different importance in full text articles remains a challenge both with traditional bag-of-words IR approaches and for neural retrieval methods. In this work we establish the connection between the BM25 score of a query term appearing in a section of a full text document and the probability of that document being clicked or identified as relevant. Probability is computed using Pool Adjacent Violators (PAV), an isotonic regression algorithm, providing a maximum likelihood estimate based on the observed data. Using this probabilistic transformation of BM25 scores we show an improved performance on the PubMed Click dataset developed and presented in this study, as well as the 2007 TREC Genomics collection.

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UCSD-Adobe at MEDIQA 2021: Transfer Learning and Answer Sentence Selection for Medical Summarization
Khalil Mrini | Franck Dernoncourt | Seunghyun Yoon | Trung Bui | Walter Chang | Emilia Farcas | Ndapa Nakashole

In this paper, we describe our approach to question summarization and multi-answer summarization in the context of the 2021 MEDIQA shared task (Ben Abacha et al., 2021). We propose two kinds of transfer learning for the abstractive summarization of medical questions. First, we train on HealthCareMagic, a large question summarization dataset collected from an online healthcare service platform. Second, we leverage the ability of the BART encoder-decoder architecture to model both generation and classification tasks to train on the task of Recognizing Question Entailment (RQE) in the medical domain. We show that both transfer learning methods combined achieve the highest ROUGE scores. Finally, we cast the question-driven extractive summarization of multiple relevant answer documents as an Answer Sentence Selection (AS2) problem. We show how we can preprocess the MEDIQA-AnS dataset such that it can be trained in an AS2 setting. Our AS2 model is able to generate extractive summaries achieving high ROUGE scores.

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ChicHealth @ MEDIQA 2021: Exploring the limits of pre-trained seq2seq models for medical summarization
Liwen Xu | Yan Zhang | Lei Hong | Yi Cai | Szui Sung

In this article, we will describe our system for MEDIQA2021 shared tasks. First, we will describe the method of the second task, multiple answer summary (MAS). For extracting abstracts, we follow the rules of (CITATION). First, the candidate sentences are roughly estimated by using the Roberta model. Then the Markov chain model is used to evaluate the sentences in a fine-grained manner. Our team won the first place in overall performance, with the fourth place in MAS task, the seventh place in RRS task and the eleventh place in QS task. For the QS and RRS tasks, we investigate the performanceS of the end-to-end pre-trained seq2seq model. Experiments show that the methods of adversarial training and reverse translation are beneficial to improve the fine tuning performance.

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NCUEE-NLP at MEDIQA 2021: Health Question Summarization Using PEGASUS Transformers
Lung-Hao Lee | Po-Han Chen | Yu-Xiang Zeng | Po-Lei Lee | Kuo-Kai Shyu

This study describes the model design of the NCUEE-NLP system for the MEDIQA challenge at the BioNLP 2021 workshop. We use the PEGASUS transformers and fine-tune the downstream summarization task using our collected and processed datasets. A total of 22 teams participated in the consumer health question summarization task of MEDIQA 2021. Each participating team was allowed to submit a maximum of ten runs. Our best submission, achieving a ROUGE2-F1 score of 0.1597, ranked third among all 128 submissions.

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SB_NITK at MEDIQA 2021: Leveraging Transfer Learning for Question Summarization in Medical Domain
Spandana Balumuri | Sony Bachina | Sowmya Kamath S

Recent strides in the healthcare domain, have resulted in vast quantities of streaming data available for use for building intelligent knowledge-based applications. However, the challenges introduced to the huge volume, velocity of generation, variety and variability of this medical data have to be adequately addressed. In this paper, we describe the model and results for our submission at MEDIQA 2021 Question Summarization shared task. In order to improve the performance of summarization of consumer health questions, our method explores the use of transfer learning to utilize the knowledge of NLP transformers like BART, T5 and PEGASUS. The proposed models utilize the knowledge of pre-trained NLP transformers to achieve improved results when compared to conventional deep learning models such as LSTM, RNN etc. Our team SB_NITK ranked 12th among the total 22 submissions in the official final rankings. Our BART based model achieved a ROUGE-2 F1 score of 0.139.

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Optum at MEDIQA 2021: Abstractive Summarization of Radiology Reports using simple BART Finetuning
Ravi Kondadadi | Sahil Manchanda | Jason Ngo | Ronan McCormack

This paper describes experiments undertaken and their results as part of the BioNLP MEDIQA 2021 challenge. We participated in Task 3: Radiology Report Summarization. Multiple runs were submitted for evaluation, from solutions leveraging transfer learning from pre-trained transformer models, which were then fine tuned on a subset of MIMIC-CXR, for abstractive report summarization. The task was evaluated using ROUGE and our best performing system obtained a ROUGE-2 score of 0.392.

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QIAI at MEDIQA 2021: Multimodal Radiology Report Summarization
Jean-Benoit Delbrouck | Cassie Zhang | Daniel Rubin

This paper describes the solution of the QIAI lab sent to the Radiology Report Summarization (RRS) challenge at MEDIQA 2021. This paper aims to investigate whether using multimodality during training improves the summarizing performances of the model at test-time. Our preliminary results shows that taking advantage of the visual features from the x-rays associated to the radiology reports leads to higher evaluation metrics compared to a text-only baseline system. These improvements are reported according to the automatic evaluation metrics METEOR, BLEU and ROUGE scores. Our experiments can be fully replicated at the following address: https://github.com/jbdel/vilmedic.

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NLM at MEDIQA 2021: Transfer Learning-based Approaches for Consumer Question and Multi-Answer Summarization
Shweta Yadav | Mourad Sarrouti | Deepak Gupta

The quest for seeking health information has swamped the web with consumers’ healthrelated questions, which makes the need for efficient and reliable question answering systems more pressing. The consumers’ questions, however, are very descriptive and contain several peripheral information (like patient’s medical history, demographic information, etc.), that are often not required for answering the question. Furthermore, it contributes to the challenges of understanding natural language questions for automatic answer retrieval. Also, it is crucial to provide the consumers with the exact and relevant answers, rather than the entire pool of answer documents to their question. One of the cardinal tasks in achieving robust consumer health question answering systems is the question summarization and multi-document answer summarization. This paper describes the participation of the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM) in Consumer Question and Multi-Answer Summarization tasks of the MEDIQA 2021 challenge at NAACL-BioNLP workshop. In this work, we exploited the capabilities of pre-trained transformer models and introduced a transfer learning approach for the abstractive Question Summarization and extractive Multi-Answer Summarization tasks by first pre-training our model on a task-specific summarization dataset followed by fine-tuning it for both the tasks via incorporating medical entities. We achieved the second, sixth and the fourth position for the Question Summarization task in terms ROUGE-1, ROUGE-2 and ROUGE-L scores respectively.

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IBMResearch at MEDIQA 2021: Toward Improving Factual Correctness of Radiology Report Abstractive Summarization
Diwakar Mahajan | Ching-Huei Tsou | Jennifer J Liang

Although recent advances in abstractive summarization systems have achieved high scores on standard natural language metrics like ROUGE, their lack of factual consistency remains an open challenge for their use in sensitive real-world settings such as clinical practice. In this work, we propose a novel approach to improve factual correctness of a summarization system by re-ranking the candidate summaries based on a factual vector of the summary. We applied this process during our participation in MEDIQA 2021 Task 3: Radiology Report Summarization, where the task is to generate an impression summary of a radiology report, given findings and background as inputs. In our system, we first used a transformer-based encoder-decoder model to generate top N candidate impression summaries for a report, then trained another transformer-based model to predict a 14-observations-vector of the impression based on the findings and background of the report, and finally, utilized this vector to re-rank the candidate summaries. We also employed a source-specific ensembling technique to accommodate for distinct writing styles from different radiology report sources. Our approach yielded 2nd place in the challenge.

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UETrice at MEDIQA 2021: A Prosper-thy-neighbour Extractive Multi-document Summarization Model
Duy-Cat Can | Quoc-An Nguyen | Quoc-Hung Duong | Minh-Quang Nguyen | Huy-Son Nguyen | Linh Nguyen Tran Ngoc | Quang-Thuy Ha | Mai-Vu Tran

This paper describes a system developed to summarize multiple answers challenge in the MEDIQA 2021 shared task collocated with the BioNLP 2021 Workshop. We propose an extractive summarization architecture based on several scores and state-of-the-art techniques. We also present our novel prosper-thy-neighbour strategies to improve performance. Our model has been proven to be effective with the best ROUGE-1/ROUGE-L scores, being the shared task runner up by ROUGE-2 F1 score (over 13 participated teams).

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MNLP at MEDIQA 2021: Fine-Tuning PEGASUS for Consumer Health Question Summarization
Jooyeon Lee | Huong Dang | Ozlem Uzuner | Sam Henry

This paper details a Consumer Health Question (CHQ) summarization model submitted to MEDIQA 2021 for shared task 1: Question Summarization. Many CHQs are composed of multiple sentences with typos or unnecessary information, which can interfere with automated question answering systems. Question summarization mitigates this issue by removing this unnecessary information, aiding automated systems in generating a more accurate summary. Our summarization approach focuses on applying multiple pre-processing techniques, including question focus identification on the input and the development of an ensemble method to combine question focus with an abstractive summarization method. We use the state-of-art abstractive summarization model, PEGASUS (Pre-training with Extracted Gap-sentences for Abstractive Summarization), to generate abstractive summaries. Our experiments show that using our ensemble method, which combines abstractive summarization with question focus identification, improves performance over using summarization alone. Our model shows a ROUGE-2 F-measure of 11.14% against the official test dataset.

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UETfishes at MEDIQA 2021: Standing-on-the-Shoulders-of-Giants Model for Abstractive Multi-answer Summarization
Hoang-Quynh Le | Quoc-An Nguyen | Quoc-Hung Duong | Minh-Quang Nguyen | Huy-Son Nguyen | Tam Doan Thanh | Hai-Yen Thi Vuong | Trang M. Nguyen

This paper describes a system developed to summarize multiple answers challenge in the MEDIQA 2021 shared task collocated with the BioNLP 2021 Workshop. We present an abstractive summarization model based on BART, a denoising auto-encoder for pre-training sequence-to-sequence models. As focusing on the summarization of answers to consumer health questions, we propose a query-driven filtering phase to choose useful information from the input document automatically. Our approach achieves potential results, rank no.2 (evaluated on extractive references) and no.3 (evaluated on abstractive references) in the final evaluation.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Fourth BlackboxNLP Workshop on Analyzing and Interpreting Neural Networks for NLP

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Proceedings of the Fourth BlackboxNLP Workshop on Analyzing and Interpreting Neural Networks for NLP
Jasmijn Bastings | Yonatan Belinkov | Emmanuel Dupoux | Mario Giulianelli | Dieuwke Hupkes | Yuval Pinter | Hassan Sajjad

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To what extent do human explanations of model behavior align with actual model behavior?
Grusha Prasad | Yixin Nie | Mohit Bansal | Robin Jia | Douwe Kiela | Adina Williams

Given the increasingly prominent role NLP models (will) play in our lives, it is important for human expectations of model behavior to align with actual model behavior. Using Natural Language Inference (NLI) as a case study, we investigate the extent to which human-generated explanations of models’ inference decisions align with how models actually make these decisions. More specifically, we define three alignment metrics that quantify how well natural language explanations align with model sensitivity to input words, as measured by integrated gradients. Then, we evaluate eight different models (the base and large versions of BERT,RoBERTa and ELECTRA, as well as anRNN and bag-of-words model), and find that the BERT-base model has the highest alignment with human-generated explanations, for all alignment metrics. Focusing in on transformers, we find that the base versions tend to have higher alignment with human-generated explanations than their larger counterparts, suggesting that increasing the number of model parameters leads, in some cases, to worse alignment with human explanations. Finally, we find that a model’s alignment with human explanations is not predicted by the model’s accuracy, suggesting that accuracy and alignment are complementary ways to evaluate models.

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Test Harder than You Train: Probing with Extrapolation Splits
Jenny Kunz | Marco Kuhlmann

Previous work on probing word representations for linguistic knowledge has focused on interpolation tasks. In this paper, we instead analyse probes in an extrapolation setting, where the inputs at test time are deliberately chosen to be ‘harder’ than the training examples. We argue that such an analysis can shed further light on the open question whether probes actually decode linguistic knowledge, or merely learn the diagnostic task from shallow features. To quantify the hardness of an example, we consider scoring functions based on linguistic, statistical, and learning-related criteria, all of which are applicable to a broad range of NLP tasks. We discuss the relative merits of these criteria in the context of two syntactic probing tasks, part-of-speech tagging and syntactic dependency labelling. From our theoretical and experimental analysis, we conclude that distance-based and hard statistical criteria show the clearest differences between interpolation and extrapolation settings, while at the same time being transparent, intuitive, and easy to control.

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Does External Knowledge Help Explainable Natural Language Inference? Automatic Evaluation vs. Human Ratings
Hendrik Schuff | Hsiu-Yu Yang | Heike Adel | Ngoc Thang Vu

Natural language inference (NLI) requires models to learn and apply commonsense knowledge. These reasoning abilities are particularly important for explainable NLI systems that generate a natural language explanation in addition to their label prediction. The integration of external knowledge has been shown to improve NLI systems, here we investigate whether it can also improve their explanation capabilities. For this, we investigate different sources of external knowledge and evaluate the performance of our models on in-domain data as well as on special transfer datasets that are designed to assess fine-grained reasoning capabilities. We find that different sources of knowledge have a different effect on reasoning abilities, for example, implicit knowledge stored in language models can hinder reasoning on numbers and negations. Finally, we conduct the largest and most fine-grained explainable NLI crowdsourcing study to date. It reveals that even large differences in automatic performance scores do neither reflect in human ratings of label, explanation, commonsense nor grammar correctness.

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The Language Model Understood the Prompt was Ambiguous: Probing Syntactic Uncertainty Through Generation
Laura Aina | Tal Linzen

Temporary syntactic ambiguities arise when the beginning of a sentence is compatible with multiple syntactic analyses. We inspect to which extent neural language models (LMs) exhibit uncertainty over such analyses when processing temporarily ambiguous inputs, and how that uncertainty is modulated by disambiguating cues. We probe the LM’s expectations by generating from it: we use stochastic decoding to derive a set of sentence completions, and estimate the probability that the LM assigns to each interpretation based on the distribution of parses across completions. Unlike scoring-based methods for targeted syntactic evaluation, this technique makes it possible to explore completions that are not hypothesized in advance by the researcher. We apply this method to study the behavior of two LMs (GPT2 and an LSTM) on three types of temporary ambiguity, using materials from human sentence processing experiments. We find that LMs can track multiple analyses simultaneously; the degree of uncertainty varies across constructions and contexts. As a response to disambiguating cues, the LMs often select the correct interpretation, but occasional errors point to potential areas of improvement

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On the Limits of Minimal Pairs in Contrastive Evaluation
Jannis Vamvas | Rico Sennrich

Minimal sentence pairs are frequently used to analyze the behavior of language models. It is often assumed that model behavior on contrastive pairs is predictive of model behavior at large. We argue that two conditions are necessary for this assumption to hold: First, a tested hypothesis should be well-motivated, since experiments show that contrastive evaluation can lead to false positives. Secondly, test data should be chosen such as to minimize distributional discrepancy between evaluation time and deployment time. For a good approximation of deployment-time decoding, we recommend that minimal pairs are created based on machine-generated text, as opposed to human-written references. We present a contrastive evaluation suite for English–German MT that implements this recommendation.

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What Models Know About Their Attackers: Deriving Attacker Information From Latent Representations
Zhouhang Xie | Jonathan Brophy | Adam Noack | Wencong You | Kalyani Asthana | Carter Perkins | Sabrina Reis | Zayd Hammoudeh | Daniel Lowd | Sameer Singh

Adversarial attacks curated against NLP models are increasingly becoming practical threats. Although various methods have been developed to detect adversarial attacks, securing learning-based NLP systems in practice would require more than identifying and evading perturbed instances. To address these issues, we propose a new set of adversary identification tasks, Attacker Attribute Classification via Textual Analysis (AACTA), that attempts to obtain more detailed information about the attackers from adversarial texts. Specifically, given a piece of adversarial text, we hope to accomplish tasks such as localizing perturbed tokens, identifying the attacker’s access level to the target model, determining the evasion mechanism imposed, and specifying the perturbation type employed by the attacking algorithm. Our contributions are as follows: we formalize the task of classifying attacker attributes, and create a benchmark on various target models from sentiment classification and abuse detection domains. We show that signals from BERT models and target models can be used to train classifiers that reveal the properties of the attacking algorithms. We demonstrate that adversarial attacks leave interpretable traces in both feature spaces of pre-trained language models and target models, making AACTA a promising direction towards more trustworthy NLP systems.

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ALL Dolphins Are Intelligent and SOME Are Friendly: Probing BERT for Nouns’ Semantic Properties and their Prototypicality
Marianna Apidianaki | Aina Garí Soler

Large scale language models encode rich commonsense knowledge acquired through exposure to massive data during pre-training, but their understanding of entities and their semantic properties is unclear. We probe BERT (Devlin et al., 2019) for the properties of English nouns as expressed by adjectives that do not restrict the reference scope of the noun they modify (as in “red car”), but instead emphasise some inherent aspect (“red strawberry”). We base our study on psycholinguistics datasets that capture the association strength between nouns and their semantic features. We probe BERT using cloze tasks and in a classification setting, and show that the model has marginal knowledge of these features and their prevalence as expressed in these datasets. We discuss factors that make evaluation challenging and impede drawing general conclusions about the models’ knowledge of noun properties. Finally, we show that when tested in a fine-tuning setting addressing entailment, BERT successfully leverages the information needed for reasoning about the meaning of adjective-noun constructions outperforming previous methods.

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ProSPer: Probing Human and Neural Network Language Model Understanding of Spatial Perspective
Tessa Masis | Carolyn Anderson

Understanding perspectival language is important for applications like dialogue systems and human-robot interaction. We propose a probe task that explores how well language models understand spatial perspective. We present a dataset for evaluating perspective inference in English, ProSPer, and use it to explore how humans and Transformer-based language models infer perspective. Although the best bidirectional model performs similarly to humans, they display different strengths: humans outperform neural networks in conversational contexts, while RoBERTa excels at written genres.

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Can Transformers Jump Around Right in Natural Language? Assessing Performance Transfer from SCAN
Rahma Chaabouni | Roberto Dessì | Eugene Kharitonov

Despite their failure to solve the compositional SCAN dataset, seq2seq architectures still achieve astonishing success on more practical tasks. This observation pushes us to question the usefulness of SCAN-style compositional generalization in realistic NLP tasks. In this work, we study the benefit that such compositionality brings about to several machine translation tasks. We present several focused modifications of Transformer that greatly improve generalization capabilities on SCAN and select one that remains on par with a vanilla Transformer on a standard machine translation (MT) task. Next, we study its performance in low-resource settings and on a newly introduced distribution-shifted English-French translation task. Overall, we find that improvements of a SCAN-capable model do not directly transfer to the resource-rich MT setup. In contrast, in the low-resource setup, general modifications lead to an improvement of up to 13.1% BLEU score w.r.t. a vanilla Transformer. Similarly, an improvement of 14% in an accuracy-based metric is achieved in the introduced compositional English-French translation task. This provides experimental evidence that the compositional generalization assessed in SCAN is particularly useful in resource-starved and domain-shifted scenarios.

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Transferring Knowledge from Vision to Language: How to Achieve it and how to Measure it?
Tobias Norlund | Lovisa Hagström | Richard Johansson

Large language models are known to suffer from the hallucination problem in that they are prone to output statements that are false or inconsistent, indicating a lack of knowledge. A proposed solution to this is to provide the model with additional data modalities that complements the knowledge obtained through text. We investigate the use of visual data to complement the knowledge of large language models by proposing a method for evaluating visual knowledge transfer to text for uni- or multimodal language models. The method is based on two steps, 1) a novel task querying for knowledge of memory colors, i.e. typical colors of well-known objects, and 2) filtering of model training data to clearly separate knowledge contributions. Additionally, we introduce a model architecture that involves a visual imagination step and evaluate it with our proposed method. We find that our method can successfully be used to measure visual knowledge transfer capabilities in models and that our novel model architecture shows promising results for leveraging multimodal knowledge in a unimodal setting.

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Discrete representations in neural models of spoken language
Bertrand Higy | Lieke Gelderloos | Afra Alishahi | Grzegorz Chrupała

The distributed and continuous representations used by neural networks are at odds with representations employed in linguistics, which are typically symbolic. Vector quantization has been proposed as a way to induce discrete neural representations that are closer in nature to their linguistic counterparts. However, it is not clear which metrics are the best-suited to analyze such discrete representations. We compare the merits of four commonly used metrics in the context of weakly supervised models of spoken language. We compare the results they show when applied to two different models, while systematically studying the effect of the placement and size of the discretization layer. We find that different evaluation regimes can give inconsistent results. While we can attribute them to the properties of the different metrics in most cases, one point of concern remains: the use of minimal pairs of phoneme triples as stimuli disadvantages larger discrete unit inventories, unlike metrics applied to complete utterances. Furthermore, while in general vector quantization induces representations that correlate with units posited in linguistics, the strength of this correlation is only moderate.

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Word Equations: Inherently Interpretable Sparse Word Embeddings through Sparse Coding
Adly Templeton

Word embeddings are a powerful natural language processing technique, but they are extremely difficult to interpret. To enable interpretable NLP models, we create vectors where each dimension is inherently interpretable. By inherently interpretable, we mean a system where each dimension is associated with some human-understandable hint that can describe the meaning of that dimension. In order to create more interpretable word embeddings, we transform pretrained dense word embeddings into sparse embeddings. These new embeddings are inherently interpretable: each of their dimensions is created from and represents a natural language word or specific grammatical concept. We construct these embeddings through sparse coding, where each vector in the basis set is itself a word embedding. Therefore, each dimension of our sparse vectors corresponds to a natural language word. We also show that models trained using these sparse embeddings can achieve good performance and are more interpretable in practice, including through human evaluations.

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A howling success or a working sea? Testing what BERT knows about metaphors
Paolo Pedinotti | Eliana Di Palma | Ludovica Cerini | Alessandro Lenci

Metaphor is a widespread linguistic and cognitive phenomenon that is ruled by mechanisms which have received attention in the literature. Transformer Language Models such as BERT have brought improvements in metaphor-related tasks. However, they have been used only in application contexts, while their knowledge of the phenomenon has not been analyzed. To test what BERT knows about metaphors, we challenge it on a new dataset that we designed to test various aspects of this phenomenon such as variations in linguistic structure, variations in conventionality, the boundaries of the plausibility of a metaphor and the interpretations that we attribute to metaphoric expressions. Results bring out some tendencies that suggest that the model can reproduce some human intuitions about metaphors.

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How Length Prediction Influence the Performance of Non-Autoregressive Translation?
Minghan Wang | Guo Jiaxin | Yuxia Wang | Yimeng Chen | Su Chang | Hengchao Shang | Min Zhang | Shimin Tao | Hao Yang

Length prediction is a special task in a series of NAT models where target length has to be determined before generation. However, the performance of length prediction and its influence on translation quality has seldom been discussed. In this paper, we present comprehensive analyses on length prediction task of NAT, aiming to find the factors that influence performance, as well as how it associates with translation quality. We mainly perform experiments based on Conditional Masked Language Model (CMLM) (Ghazvininejad et al., 2019), a representative NAT model, and evaluate it on two language pairs, En-De and En-Ro. We draw two conclusions: 1) The performance of length prediction is mainly influenced by properties of language pairs such as alignment pattern, word order or intrinsic length ratio, and is also affected by the usage of knowledge distilled data. 2) There is a positive correlation between the performance of the length prediction and the BLEU score.

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On the Language-specificity of Multilingual BERT and the Impact of Fine-tuning
Marc Tanti | Lonneke van der Plas | Claudia Borg | Albert Gatt

Recent work has shown evidence that the knowledge acquired by multilingual BERT (mBERT) has two components: a language-specific and a language-neutral one. This paper analyses the relationship between them, in the context of fine-tuning on two tasks – POS tagging and natural language inference – which require the model to bring to bear different degrees of language-specific knowledge. Visualisations reveal that mBERT loses the ability to cluster representations by language after fine-tuning, a result that is supported by evidence from language identification experiments. However, further experiments on ‘unlearning’ language-specific representations using gradient reversal and iterative adversarial learning are shown not to add further improvement to the language-independent component over and above the effect of fine-tuning. The results presented here suggest that the process of fine-tuning causes a reorganisation of the model’s limited representational capacity, enhancing language-independent representations at the expense of language-specific ones.

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Relating Neural Text Degeneration to Exposure Bias
Ting-Rui Chiang | Yun-Nung Chen

This work focuses on relating two mysteries in neural-based text generation: exposure bias, and text degeneration. Despite the long time since exposure bias was mentioned and the numerous studies for its remedy, to our knowledge, its impact on text generation has not yet been verified. Text degeneration is a problem that the widely-used pre-trained language model GPT-2 was recently found to suffer from (Holtzman et al., 2020). Motivated by the unknown causation of the text degeneration, in this paper we attempt to relate these two mysteries. Specifically, we first qualitatively and quantitatively identify mistakes made before text degeneration occurs. Then we investigate the significance of the mistakes by inspecting the hidden states in GPT-2. Our results show that text degeneration is likely to be partly caused by exposure bias. We also study the self-reinforcing mechanism of text degeneration, explaining why the mistakes amplify. In sum, our study provides a more concrete foundation for further investigation on exposure bias and text degeneration problems.

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Efficient Explanations from Empirical Explainers
Robert Schwarzenberg | Nils Feldhus | Sebastian Möller

Amid a discussion about Green AI in which we see explainability neglected, we explore the possibility to efficiently approximate computationally expensive explainers. To this end, we propose feature attribution modelling with Empirical Explainers. Empirical Explainers learn from data to predict the attribution maps of expensive explainers. We train and test Empirical Explainers in the language domain and find that they model their expensive counterparts surprisingly well, at a fraction of the cost. They could thus mitigate the computational burden of neural explanations significantly, in applications that tolerate an approximation error.

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Variation and generality in encoding of syntactic anomaly information in sentence embeddings
Qinxuan Wu | Allyson Ettinger

While sentence anomalies have been applied periodically for testing in NLP, we have yet to establish a picture of the precise status of anomaly information in representations from NLP models. In this paper we aim to fill two primary gaps, focusing on the domain of syntactic anomalies. First, we explore fine-grained differences in anomaly encoding by designing probing tasks that vary the hierarchical level at which anomalies occur in a sentence. Second, we test not only models’ ability to detect a given anomaly, but also the generality of the detected anomaly signal, by examining transfer between distinct anomaly types. Results suggest that all models encode some information supporting anomaly detection, but detection performance varies between anomalies, and only representations from more re- cent transformer models show signs of generalized knowledge of anomalies. Follow-up analyses support the notion that these models pick up on a legitimate, general notion of sentence oddity, while coarser-grained word position information is likely also a contributor to the observed anomaly detection.

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Enhancing Interpretable Clauses Semantically using Pretrained Word Representation
Rohan Kumar Yadav | Lei Jiao | Ole-Christoffer Granmo | Morten Goodwin

Tsetlin Machine (TM) is an interpretable pattern recognition algorithm based on propositional logic, which has demonstrated competitive performance in many Natural Language Processing (NLP) tasks, including sentiment analysis, text classification, and Word Sense Disambiguation. To obtain human-level interpretability, legacy TM employs Boolean input features such as bag-of-words (BOW). However, the BOW representation makes it difficult to use any pre-trained information, for instance, word2vec and GloVe word representations. This restriction has constrained the performance of TM compared to deep neural networks (DNNs) in NLP. To reduce the performance gap, in this paper, we propose a novel way of using pre-trained word representations for TM. The approach significantly enhances the performance and interpretability of TM. We achieve this by extracting semantically related words from pre-trained word representations as input features to the TM. Our experiments show that the accuracy of the proposed approach is significantly higher than the previous BOW-based TM, reaching the level of DNN-based models.

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Analyzing BERT’s Knowledge of Hypernymy via Prompting
Michael Hanna | David Mareček

The high performance of large pretrained language models (LLMs) such as BERT on NLP tasks has prompted questions about BERT’s linguistic capabilities, and how they differ from humans’. In this paper, we approach this question by examining BERT’s knowledge of lexical semantic relations. We focus on hypernymy, the “is-a” relation that relates a word to a superordinate category. We use a prompting methodology to simply ask BERT what the hypernym of a given word is. We find that, in a setting where all hypernyms are guessable via prompting, BERT knows hypernyms with up to 57% accuracy. Moreover, BERT with prompting outperforms other unsupervised models for hypernym discovery even in an unconstrained scenario. However, BERT’s predictions and performance on a dataset containing uncommon hyponyms and hypernyms indicate that its knowledge of hypernymy is still limited.

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An in-depth look at Euclidean disk embeddings for structure preserving parsing
Federico Fancellu | Lan Xiao | Allan Jepson | Afsaneh Fazly

Preserving the structural properties of trees or graphs when embedding them into a metric space allows for a high degree of interpretability, and has been shown beneficial for downstream tasks (e.g., hypernym detection, natural language inference, multimodal retrieval). However, whereas the majority of prior work looks at using structure-preserving embeddings when encoding a structure given as input, e.g., WordNet (Fellbaum, 1998), there is little exploration on how to use such embeddings when predicting one. We address this gap for two structure generation tasks, namely dependency and semantic parsing. We test the applicability of disk embeddings (Suzuki et al., 2019) that has been proposed for embedding Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAGs) but has not been tested on tasks that generate such structures. Our experimental results show that for both tasks the original disk embedding formulation leads to much worse performance when compared to non-structure-preserving baselines. We propose enhancements to this formulation and show that they almost close the performance gap for dependency parsing. However, the gap still remains notable for semantic parsing due to the complexity of meaning representation graphs, suggesting a challenge for generating interpretable semantic parse representations.

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Training Dynamic based data filtering may not work for NLP datasets
Arka Talukdar | Monika Dagar | Prachi Gupta | Varun Menon

The recent increase in dataset size has brought about significant advances in natural language understanding. These large datasets are usually collected through automation (search engines or web crawlers) or crowdsourcing which inherently introduces incorrectly labeled data. Training on these datasets leads to memorization and poor generalization. Thus, it is pertinent to develop techniques that help in the identification and isolation of mislabelled data. In this paper, we study the applicability of the Area Under the Margin (AUM) metric to identify and remove/rectify mislabelled examples in NLP datasets. We find that mislabelled samples can be filtered using the AUM metric in NLP datasets but it also removes a significant number of correctly labeled points and leads to the loss of a large amount of relevant language information. We show that models rely on the distributional information instead of relying on syntactic and semantic representations.

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Multi-Layer Random Perturbation Training for improving Model Generalization Efficiently
Lis Kanashiro Pereira | Yuki Taya | Ichiro Kobayashi

We propose a simple yet effective Multi-Layer RAndom Perturbation Training algorithm (RAPT) to enhance model robustness and generalization. The key idea is to apply randomly sampled noise to each input to generate label-preserving artificial input points. To encourage the model to generate more diverse examples, the noise is added to a combination of the model layers. Then, our model regularizes the posterior difference between clean and noisy inputs. We apply RAPT towards robust and efficient BERT training, and conduct comprehensive fine-tuning experiments on GLUE tasks. Our results show that RAPT outperforms the standard fine-tuning approach, and adversarial training method, yet with 22% less training time.

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Screening Gender Transfer in Neural Machine Translation
Guillaume Wisniewski | Lichao Zhu | Nicolas Bailler | François Yvon

This paper aims at identifying the information flow in state-of-the-art machine translation systems, taking as example the transfer of gender when translating from French into English. Using a controlled set of examples, we experiment several ways to investigate how gender information circulates in a encoder-decoder architecture considering both probing techniques as well as interventions on the internal representations used in the MT system. Our results show that gender information can be found in all token representations built by the encoder and the decoder and lead us to conclude that there are multiple pathways for gender transfer.

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What BERT Based Language Model Learns in Spoken Transcripts: An Empirical Study
Ayush Kumar | Mukuntha Narayanan Sundararaman | Jithendra Vepa

Language Models (LMs) have been ubiquitously leveraged in various tasks including spoken language understanding (SLU). Spoken language requires careful understanding of speaker interactions, dialog states and speech induced multimodal behaviors to generate a meaningful representation of the conversation. In this work, we propose to dissect SLU into three representative properties: conversational (disfluency, pause, overtalk), channel (speaker-type, turn-tasks) and ASR (insertion, deletion, substitution). We probe BERT based language models (BERT, RoBERTa) trained on spoken transcripts to investigate its ability to understand multifarious properties in absence of any speech cues. Empirical results indicate that LM is surprisingly good at capturing conversational properties such as pause prediction and overtalk detection from lexical tokens. On the downsides, the LM scores low on turn-tasks and ASR errors predictions. Additionally, pre-training the LM on spoken transcripts restrain its linguistic understanding. Finally, we establish the efficacy and transferability of the mentioned properties on two benchmark datasets: Switchboard Dialog Act and Disfluency datasets.

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Assessing the Generalization Capacity of Pre-trained Language Models through Japanese Adversarial Natural Language Inference
Hitomi Yanaka | Koji Mineshima

Despite the success of multilingual pre-trained language models, it remains unclear to what extent these models have human-like generalization capacity across languages. The aim of this study is to investigate the out-of-distribution generalization of pre-trained language models through Natural Language Inference (NLI) in Japanese, the typological properties of which are different from those of English. We introduce a synthetically generated Japanese NLI dataset, called the Japanese Adversarial NLI (JaNLI) dataset, which is inspired by the English HANS dataset and is designed to require understanding of Japanese linguistic phenomena and illuminate the vulnerabilities of models. Through a series of experiments to evaluate the generalization performance of both Japanese and multilingual BERT models, we demonstrate that there is much room to improve current models trained on Japanese NLI tasks. Furthermore, a comparison of human performance and model performance on the different types of garden-path sentences in the JaNLI dataset shows that structural phenomena that ease interpretation of garden-path sentences for human readers do not help models in the same way, highlighting a difference between human readers and the models.

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Investigating Negation in Pre-trained Vision-and-language Models
Radina Dobreva | Frank Keller

Pre-trained vision-and-language models have achieved impressive results on a variety of tasks, including ones that require complex reasoning beyond object recognition. However, little is known about how they achieve these results or what their limitations are. In this paper, we focus on a particular linguistic capability, namely the understanding of negation. We borrow techniques from the analysis of language models to investigate the ability of pre-trained vision-and-language models to handle negation. We find that these models severely underperform in the presence of negation.

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Not all parameters are born equal: Attention is mostly what you need
Nikolay Bogoychev

Transformers are widely used in state-of-the-art machine translation, but the key to their success is still unknown. To gain insight into this, we consider three groups of parameters: embeddings, attention, and Feed-Forward Neural network (FFN) layers. We examine the relative importance of each by performing an ablation study where we initialise them at random and freeze them, so that their weights do not change over the course of the training. Through this, we show that the attention and FFN are equally important and fulfil the same functionality in a model. We show that the decision about whether a component is frozen or allowed to train is at least as important for the final model performance as its number of parameters. At the same time, the number of parameters alone is not indicative of a component’s importance. Finally, while the embedding layer is the least essential for machine translation tasks, it is the most important component for language modelling tasks.

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Not All Models Localize Linguistic Knowledge in the Same Place: A Layer-wise Probing on BERToids’ Representations
Mohsen Fayyaz | Ehsan Aghazadeh | Ali Modarressi | Hosein Mohebbi | Mohammad Taher Pilehvar

Most of the recent works on probing representations have focused on BERT, with the presumption that the findings might be similar to the other models. In this work, we extend the probing studies to two other models in the family, namely ELECTRA and XLNet, showing that variations in the pre-training objectives or architectural choices can result in different behaviors in encoding linguistic information in the representations. Most notably, we observe that ELECTRA tends to encode linguistic knowledge in the deeper layers, whereas XLNet instead concentrates that in the earlier layers. Also, the former model undergoes a slight change during fine-tuning, whereas the latter experiences significant adjustments. Moreover, we show that drawing conclusions based on the weight mixing evaluation strategy—which is widely used in the context of layer-wise probing—can be misleading given the norm disparity of the representations across different layers. Instead, we adopt an alternative information-theoretic probing with minimum description length, which has recently been proven to provide more reliable and informative results.

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Learning Mathematical Properties of Integers
Maria Ryskina | Kevin Knight

Embedding words in high-dimensional vector spaces has proven valuable in many natural language applications. In this work, we investigate whether similarly-trained embeddings of integers can capture concepts that are useful for mathematical applications. We probe the integer embeddings for mathematical knowledge, apply them to a set of numerical reasoning tasks, and show that by learning the representations from mathematical sequence data, we can substantially improve over number embeddings learned from English text corpora.

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Probing Language Models for Understanding of Temporal Expressions
Shivin Thukral | Kunal Kukreja | Christian Kavouras

We present three Natural Language Inference (NLI) challenge sets that can evaluate NLI models on their understanding of temporal expressions. More specifically, we probe these models for three temporal properties: (a) the order between points in time, (b) the duration between two points in time, (c) the relation between the magnitude of times specified in different units. We find that although large language models fine-tuned on MNLI have some basic perception of the order between points in time, at large, these models do not have a thorough understanding of the relation between temporal expressions.

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How Familiar Does That Sound? Cross-Lingual Representational Similarity Analysis of Acoustic Word Embeddings
Badr Abdullah | Iuliia Zaitova | Tania Avgustinova | Bernd Möbius | Dietrich Klakow

How do neural networks “perceive” speech sounds from unknown languages? Does the typological similarity between the model’s training language (L1) and an unknown language (L2) have an impact on the model representations of L2 speech signals? To answer these questions, we present a novel experimental design based on representational similarity analysis (RSA) to analyze acoustic word embeddings (AWEs)—vector representations of variable-duration spoken-word segments. First, we train monolingual AWE models on seven Indo-European languages with various degrees of typological similarity. We then employ RSA to quantify the cross-lingual similarity by simulating native and non-native spoken-word processing using AWEs. Our experiments show that typological similarity indeed affects the representational similarity of the models in our study. We further discuss the implications of our work on modeling speech processing and language similarity with neural networks.

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Perturbing Inputs for Fragile Interpretations in Deep Natural Language Processing
Sanchit Sinha | Hanjie Chen | Arshdeep Sekhon | Yangfeng Ji | Yanjun Qi

Interpretability methods like Integrated Gradient and LIME are popular choices for explaining natural language model predictions with relative word importance scores. These interpretations need to be robust for trustworthy NLP applications in high-stake areas like medicine or finance. Our paper demonstrates how interpretations can be manipulated by making simple word perturbations on an input text. Via a small portion of word-level swaps, these adversarial perturbations aim to make the resulting text semantically and spatially similar to its seed input (therefore sharing similar interpretations). Simultaneously, the generated examples achieve the same prediction label as the seed yet are given a substantially different explanation by the interpretation methods. Our experiments generate fragile interpretations to attack two SOTA interpretation methods, across three popular Transformer models and on three different NLP datasets. We observe that the rank order correlation and top-K intersection score drops by over 20% when less than 10% of words are perturbed on average. Further, rank-order correlation keeps decreasing as more words get perturbed. Furthermore, we demonstrate that candidates generated from our method have good quality metrics.

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An Investigation of Language Model Interpretability via Sentence Editing
Samuel Stevens | Yu Su

Pre-trained language models (PLMs) like BERT are being used for almost all language-related tasks, but interpreting their behavior still remains a significant challenge and many important questions remain largely unanswered. In this work, we re-purpose a sentence editing dataset, where faithful high-quality human rationales can be automatically extracted and compared with extracted model rationales, as a new testbed for interpretability. This enables us to conduct a systematic investigation on an array of questions regarding PLMs’ interpretability, including the role of pre-training procedure, comparison of rationale extraction methods, and different layers in the PLM. The investigation generates new insights, for example, contrary to the common understanding, we find that attention weights correlate well with human rationales and work better than gradient-based saliency in extracting model rationales. Both the dataset and code will be released to facilitate future interpretability research.

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Interacting Knowledge Sources, Inspection and Analysis: Case-studies on Biomedical text processing
Parsa Bagherzadeh | Sabine Bergler

In this paper we investigate the recently proposed multi-input RIM for inspectability. This framework follows an encapsulation paradigm, where external knowledge sources are encoded as largely independent modules, enabling transparency for model inspection.

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Attacks against Ranking Algorithms with Text Embeddings: A Case Study on Recruitment Algorithms
Anahita Samadi | Debapriya Banerjee | Shirin Nilizadeh

Recently, some studies have shown that text classification tasks are vulnerable to poisoning and evasion attacks. However, little work has investigated attacks against decision-making algorithms that use text embeddings, and their output is a ranking. In this paper, we focus on ranking algorithms for the recruitment process that employ text embeddings for ranking applicants’ resumes when compared to a job description. We demonstrate both white-box and black-box attacks that identify text items that, based on their location in embedding space, have a significant contribution in increasing the similarity score between a resume and a job description. The adversary then uses these text items to improve the ranking of their resume among others. We tested recruitment algorithms that use the similarity scores obtained from Universal Sentence Encoder (USE) and Term Frequency–Inverse Document Frequency (TF-IDF) vectors. Our results show that in both adversarial settings, on average the attacker is successful. We also found that attacks against TF-IDF are more successful compared to USE.

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Controlled tasks for model analysis: Retrieving discrete information from sequences
Ionut-Teodor Sorodoc | Gemma Boleda | Marco Baroni

In recent years, the NLP community has shown increasing interest in analysing how deep learning models work. Given that large models trained on complex tasks are difficult to inspect, some of this work has focused on controlled tasks that emulate specific aspects of language. We propose a new set of such controlled tasks to explore a crucial aspect of natural language processing that has not received enough attention: the need to retrieve discrete information from sequences. We also study model behavior on the tasks with simple instantiations of Transformers and LSTMs. Our results highlight the beneficial role of decoder attention and its sometimes unexpected interaction with other components. Moreover, we show that, for most of the tasks, these simple models still show significant difficulties. We hope that the community will take up the analysis possibilities that our tasks afford, and that a clearer understanding of model behavior on the tasks will lead to better and more transparent models.

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The Acceptability Delta Criterion: Testing Knowledge of Language using the Gradience of Sentence Acceptability
Héctor Javier Vázquez Martínez

Any test that promises to assess Human Knowledge of Language (KoL) for any statistically-based Language Model (LM) must meet three requirements: (1) comprehensive coverage of linguistic phenomena; (2) replicable and statistically-vetted human judgement data; and (3) test the LM’s ability to track the gradience of sentence acceptability. To this end, we propose here the LI-Adger dataset: a comprehensive collection of 519 sentence types (4177 sentences) spanning the field of current generative linguistics, accompanied by attested and replicable human acceptability judgements (Sprouse & Almeida, 2012; Sprouse et al. 2013; Sprouse & Almeida, 2017). Finally, we posit the Acceptability Delta Criterion (ADC), an evaluation metric that tests how well a LM can track changes in human acceptability judgements across minimal pairs instead of testing whether the LM assigned a greater likelihood to the expert-labeled acceptable sequence of a minimal pair (S_1 > S_2). We benchmark six different BERT (Devlin et al. 2018) models and a baseline trigram model with the ADC. Although the best performing BERT model scores 94%, and the trigram scores 75% classification accuracy under the traditional metric, performance drops precipitously to 38% for BERT and 30% for the trigram model under the ADC. Adopting the ADC reveals how much harder it is for LMs to track the gradience of acceptability across minimal pairs. With this work, we propose and provide the three necessary requirements for a comprehensive linguistic analysis and test of the apparently Human KoL exhibited by LMs that we believe is currently missing in the field of Computational Linguistics.

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How Does BERT Rerank Passages? An Attribution Analysis with Information Bottlenecks
Zhiying Jiang | Raphael Tang | Ji Xin | Jimmy Lin

Fine-tuned pre-trained transformers achieve the state of the art in passage reranking. Unfortunately, how they make their predictions remains vastly unexplained, especially at the end-to-end, input-to-output level. Little known is how tokens, layers, and passages precisely contribute to the final prediction. In this paper, we address this gap by leveraging the recently developed information bottlenecks for attribution (IBA) framework. On BERT-based models for passage reranking, we quantitatively demonstrate the framework’s veracity in extracting attribution maps, from which we perform detailed, token-wise analysis about how predictions are made. Overall, we find that BERT still cares about exact token matching for reranking; the [CLS] token mainly gathers information for predictions at the last layer; top-ranked passages are robust to token removal; and BERT fine-tuned on MSMARCO has positional bias towards the start of the passage.

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Do Language Models Know the Way to Rome?
Bastien Liétard | Mostafa Abdou | Anders Søgaard

The global geometry of language models is important for a range of applications, but language model probes tend to evaluate rather local relations, for which ground truths are easily obtained. In this paper we exploit the fact that in geography, ground truths are available beyond local relations. In a series of experiments, we evaluate the extent to which language model representations of city and country names are isomorphic to real-world geography, e.g., if you tell a language model where Paris and Berlin are, does it know the way to Rome? We find that language models generally encode limited geographic information, but with larger models performing the best, suggesting that geographic knowledge can be induced from higher-order co-occurrence statistics.

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Exploratory Model Analysis Using Data-Driven Neuron Representations
Daisuke Oba | Naoki Yoshinaga | Masashi Toyoda

Probing classifiers have been extensively used to inspect whether a model component captures specific linguistic phenomena. This top-down approach is, however, costly when we have no probable hypothesis on the association between the target model component and phenomena. In this study, aiming to provide a flexible, exploratory analysis of a neural model at various levels ranging from individual neurons to the model as a whole, we present a bottom-up approach to inspect the target neural model by using neuron representations obtained from a massive corpus of text. We first feed massive amount of text to the target model and collect sentences that strongly activate each neuron. We then abstract the collected sentences to obtain neuron representations that help us interpret the corresponding neurons; we augment the sentences with linguistic annotations (e.g., part-of-speech tags) and various metadata (e.g., topic and sentiment), and apply pattern mining and clustering techniques to the augmented sentences. We demonstrate the utility of our method by inspecting the pre-trained BERT. Our exploratory analysis reveals that i) specific phrases and domains of text are captured by individual neurons in BERT, ii) a group of neurons simultaneously capture the same linguistic phenomena, and iii) deeper-level layers capture more specific linguistic phenomena.

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Fine-Tuned Transformers Show Clusters of Similar Representations Across Layers
Jason Phang | Haokun Liu | Samuel R. Bowman

Despite the success of fine-tuning pretrained language encoders like BERT for downstream natural language understanding (NLU) tasks, it is still poorly understood how neural networks change after fine-tuning. In this work, we use centered kernel alignment (CKA), a method for comparing learned representations, to measure the similarity of representations in task-tuned models across layers. In experiments across twelve NLU tasks, we discover a consistent block diagonal structure in the similarity of representations within fine-tuned RoBERTa and ALBERT models, with strong similarity within clusters of earlier and later layers, but not between them. The similarity of later layer representations implies that later layers only marginally contribute to task performance, and we verify in experiments that the top few layers of fine-tuned Transformers can be discarded without hurting performance, even with no further tuning.

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BERT Has Uncommon Sense: Similarity Ranking for Word Sense BERTology
Luke Gessler | Nathan Schneider

An important question concerning contextualized word embedding (CWE) models like BERT is how well they can represent different word senses, especially those in the long tail of uncommon senses. Rather than build a WSD system as in previous work, we investigate contextualized embedding neighborhoods directly, formulating a query-by-example nearest neighbor retrieval task and examining ranking performance for words and senses in different frequency bands. In an evaluation on two English sense-annotated corpora, we find that several popular CWE models all outperform a random baseline even for proportionally rare senses, without explicit sense supervision. However, performance varies considerably even among models with similar architectures and pretraining regimes, with especially large differences for rare word senses, revealing that CWE models are not all created equal when it comes to approximating word senses in their native representations.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Benchmarking: Past, Present and Future

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Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Benchmarking: Past, Present and Future
Kenneth Church | Mark Liberman | Valia Kordoni

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Benchmarking: Past, Present and Future
Kenneth Church | Mark Liberman | Valia Kordoni

Where have we been, and where are we going? It is easier to talk about the past than the future. These days, benchmarks evolve more bottom up (such as papers with code). There used to be more top-down leadership from government (and industry, in the case of systems, with benchmarks such as SPEC). Going forward, there may be more top-down leadership from organizations like MLPerf and/or influencers like David Ferrucci, who was responsible for IBM’s success with Jeopardy, and has recently written a paper suggesting how the community should think about benchmarking for machine comprehension. Tasks such as reading comprehension become even more interesting as we move beyond English. Multilinguality introduces many challenges, and even more opportunities.

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Guideline Bias in Wizard-of-Oz Dialogues
Victor Petrén Bach Hansen | Anders Søgaard

NLP models struggle with generalization due to sampling and annotator bias. This paper focuses on a different kind of bias that has received very little attention: guideline bias, i.e., the bias introduced by how our annotator guidelines are formulated. We examine two recently introduced dialogue datasets, CCPE-M and Taskmaster-1, both collected by trained assistants in a Wizard-of-Oz set-up. For CCPE-M, we show how a simple lexical bias for the word like in the guidelines biases the data collection. This bias, in effect, leads to poor performance on data without this bias: a preference elicitation architecture based on BERT suffers a 5.3% absolute drop in performance, when like is replaced with a synonymous phrase, and a 13.2% drop in performance when evaluated on out-of-sample data. For Taskmaster-1, we show how the order in which instructions are resented, biases the data collection.

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We Need to Consider Disagreement in Evaluation
Valerio Basile | Michael Fell | Tommaso Fornaciari | Dirk Hovy | Silviu Paun | Barbara Plank | Massimo Poesio | Alexandra Uma

Evaluation is of paramount importance in data-driven research fields such as Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Computer Vision (CV). Current evaluation practice largely hinges on the existence of a single “ground truth” against which we can meaningfully compare the prediction of a model. However, this comparison is flawed for two reasons. 1) In many cases, more than one answer is correct. 2) Even where there is a single answer, disagreement among annotators is ubiquitous, making it difficult to decide on a gold standard. We argue that the current methods of adjudication, agreement, and evaluation need serious reconsideration. Some researchers now propose to minimize disagreement and to fix datasets. We argue that this is a gross oversimplification, and likely to conceal the underlying complexity. Instead, we suggest that we need to better capture the sources of disagreement to improve today’s evaluation practice. We discuss three sources of disagreement: from the annotator, the data, and the context, and show how this affects even seemingly objective tasks. Datasets with multiple annotations are becoming more common, as are methods to integrate disagreement into modeling. The logical next step is to extend this to evaluation.

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How Might We Create Better Benchmarks for Speech Recognition?
Alëna Aksënova | Daan van Esch | James Flynn | Pavel Golik

The applications of automatic speech recognition (ASR) systems are proliferating, in part due to recent significant quality improvements. However, as recent work indicates, even state-of-the-art speech recognition systems – some which deliver impressive benchmark results, struggle to generalize across use cases. We review relevant work, and, hoping to inform future benchmark development, outline a taxonomy of speech recognition use cases, proposed for the next generation of ASR benchmarks. We also survey work on metrics, in addition to the de facto standard Word Error Rate (WER) metric, and we introduce a versatile framework designed to describe interactions between linguistic variation and ASR performance metrics.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 8th Workshop on Balto-Slavic Natural Language Processing

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Proceedings of the 8th Workshop on Balto-Slavic Natural Language Processing
Bogdan Babych | Olga Kanishcheva | Preslav Nakov | Jakub Piskorski | Lidia Pivovarova | Vasyl Starko | Josef Steinberger | Roman Yangarber | Michał Marcińczuk | Senja Pollak | Pavel Přibáň | Marko Robnik-Šikonja

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HerBERT: Efficiently Pretrained Transformer-based Language Model for Polish
Robert Mroczkowski | Piotr Rybak | Alina Wróblewska | Ireneusz Gawlik

BERT-based models are currently used for solving nearly all Natural Language Processing (NLP) tasks and most often achieve state-of-the-art results. Therefore, the NLP community conducts extensive research on understanding these models, but above all on designing effective and efficient training procedures. Several ablation studies investigating how to train BERT-like models have been carried out, but the vast majority of them concerned only the English language. A training procedure designed for English does not have to be universal and applicable to other especially typologically different languages. Therefore, this paper presents the first ablation study focused on Polish, which, unlike the isolating English language, is a fusional language. We design and thoroughly evaluate a pretraining procedure of transferring knowledge from multilingual to monolingual BERT-based models. In addition to multilingual model initialization, other factors that possibly influence pretraining are also explored, i.e. training objective, corpus size, BPE-Dropout, and pretraining length. Based on the proposed procedure, a Polish BERT-based language model – HerBERT – is trained. This model achieves state-of-the-art results on multiple downstream tasks.

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Russian Paraphrasers: Paraphrase with Transformers
Alena Fenogenova

This paper studies the generation methods for paraphrasing in the Russian language. There are several transformer-based models (Russian and multilingual) trained on a collected corpus of paraphrases. We compare different models, contrast the quality of paraphrases using different ranking methods and apply paraphrasing methods in the context of augmentation procedure for different tasks. The contributions of the work are the combined paraphrasing dataset, fine-tuned generated models for Russian paraphrasing task and additionally the open source tool for simple usage of the paraphrasers.

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Abusive Language Recognition in Russian
Kamil Saitov | Leon Derczynski

Abusive phenomena are commonplace in language on the web. The scope of recognizing abusive language is broad, covering many behaviors and forms of expression. This work addresses automatic detection of abusive language in Russian. The lexical, grammatical and morphological diversity of Russian language present potential difficulties for this task, which is addressed using a variety of machine learning approaches. Finally, competitive performance is reached over multiple domains for this investigation into automatic detection of abusive language in Russian.

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Detecting Inappropriate Messages on Sensitive Topics that Could Harm a Company’s Reputation
Nikolay Babakov | Varvara Logacheva | Olga Kozlova | Nikita Semenov | Alexander Panchenko

Not all topics are equally “flammable” in terms of toxicity: a calm discussion of turtles or fishing less often fuels inappropriate toxic dialogues than a discussion of politics or sexual minorities. We define a set of sensitive topics that can yield inappropriate and toxic messages and describe the methodology of collecting and labelling a dataset for appropriateness. While toxicity in user-generated data is well-studied, we aim at defining a more fine-grained notion of inappropriateness. The core of inappropriateness is that it can harm the reputation of a speaker. This is different from toxicity in two respects: (i) inappropriateness is topic-related, and (ii) inappropriate message is not toxic but still unacceptable. We collect and release two datasets for Russian: a topic-labelled dataset and an appropriateness-labelled dataset. We also release pre-trained classification models trained on this data.

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BERTić - The Transformer Language Model for Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian
Nikola Ljubešić | Davor Lauc

In this paper we describe a transformer model pre-trained on 8 billion tokens of crawled text from the Croatian, Bosnian, Serbian and Montenegrin web domains. We evaluate the transformer model on the tasks of part-of-speech tagging, named-entity-recognition, geo-location prediction and commonsense causal reasoning, showing improvements on all tasks over state-of-the-art models. For commonsense reasoning evaluation we introduce COPA-HR - a translation of the Choice of Plausible Alternatives (COPA) dataset into Croatian. The BERTić model is made available for free usage and further task-specific fine-tuning through HuggingFace.

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RuSentEval: Linguistic Source, Encoder Force!
Vladislav Mikhailov | Ekaterina Taktasheva | Elina Sigdel | Ekaterina Artemova

The success of pre-trained transformer language models has brought a great deal of interest on how these models work, and what they learn about language. However, prior research in the field is mainly devoted to English, and little is known regarding other languages. To this end, we introduce RuSentEval, an enhanced set of 14 probing tasks for Russian, including ones that have not been explored yet. We apply a combination of complementary probing methods to explore the distribution of various linguistic properties in five multilingual transformers for two typologically contrasting languages – Russian and English. Our results provide intriguing findings that contradict the common understanding of how linguistic knowledge is represented, and demonstrate that some properties are learned in a similar manner despite the language differences.

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Exploratory Analysis of News Sentiment Using Subgroup Discovery
Anita Valmarska | Luis Adrián Cabrera-Diego | Elvys Linhares Pontes | Senja Pollak

In this study, we present an exploratory analysis of a Slovenian news corpus, in which we investigate the association between named entities and sentiment in the news. We propose a methodology that combines Named Entity Recognition and Subgroup Discovery - a descriptive rule learning technique for identifying groups of examples that share the same class label (sentiment) and pattern (features - Named Entities). The approach is used to induce the positive and negative sentiment class rules that reveal interesting patterns related to different Slovenian and international politicians, organizations, and locations.

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Creating an Aligned Russian Text Simplification Dataset from Language Learner Data
Anna Dmitrieva | Jörg Tiedemann

Parallel language corpora where regular texts are aligned with their simplified versions can be used in both natural language processing and theoretical linguistic studies. They are essential for the task of automatic text simplification, but can also provide valuable insights into the characteristics that make texts more accessible and reveal strategies that human experts use to simplify texts. Today, there exist a few parallel datasets for English and Simple English, but many other languages lack such data. In this paper we describe our work on creating an aligned Russian-Simple Russian dataset composed of Russian literature texts adapted for learners of Russian as a foreign language. This will be the first parallel dataset in this domain, and one of the first Simple Russian datasets in general.

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Multilingual Named Entity Recognition and Matching Using BERT and Dedupe for Slavic Languages
Marko Prelevikj | Slavko Zitnik

This paper describes the University of Ljubljana (UL FRI) Group’s submissions to the shared task at the Balto-Slavic Natural Language Processing (BSNLP) 2021 Workshop. We experiment with multiple BERT-based models, pre-trained in multi-lingual, Croatian-Slovene-English and Slovene-only data. We perform training iteratively and on the concatenated data of previously available NER datasets. For the normalization task we use Stanza lemmatizer, while for entity matching we implemented a baseline using the Dedupe library. The performance of evaluations suggests that multi-source settings outperform less-resourced approaches. The best NER models achieve 0.91 F-score on Slovene training data splits while the best official submission achieved F-scores of 0.84 and 0.78 for relaxed partial matching and strict settings, respectively. In multi-lingual NER setting we achieve F-scores of 0.82 and 0.74.

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Priberam Labs at the 3rd Shared Task on SlavNER
Pedro Ferreira | Ruben Cardoso | Afonso Mendes

This document describes our participation at the 3rd Shared Task on SlavNER, part of the 8th Balto-Slavic Natural Language Processing Workshop, where we focused exclusively in the Named Entity Recognition (NER) task. We addressed this task by combining multi-lingual contextual embedding models, such as XLM-R (Conneau et al., 2020), with character- level embeddings and a biaffine classifier (Yu et al., 2020). This allowed us to train downstream models for NER using all the available training data. We are able to show that this approach results in good performance when replicating the scenario of the 2nd Shared Task.

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Multilingual Slavic Named Entity Recognition
Rinalds Vīksna | Inguna Skadina

Named entity recognition, in particular for morphological rich languages, is challenging task due to the richness of inflected forms and ambiguity. This challenge is being addressed by SlavNER Shared Task. In this paper we describe system submitted to this task. Our system uses pre-trained multilingual BERT Language Model and is fine-tuned for six Slavic languages of this task on texts distributed by organizers. In our experiments this multilingual NER model achieved 96 F1 score on in-domain data and an F1 score of 83 on out of domain data. Entity coreference module achieved F1 score of 47.6 as evaluated by bsnlp2021 organizers.

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Using a Frustratingly Easy Domain and Tagset Adaptation for Creating Slavic Named Entity Recognition Systems
Luis Adrián Cabrera-Diego | Jose G. Moreno | Antoine Doucet

We present a collection of Named Entity Recognition (NER) systems for six Slavic languages: Bulgarian, Czech, Polish, Slovenian, Russian and Ukrainian. These NER systems have been trained using different BERT models and a Frustratingly Easy Domain Adaptation (FEDA). FEDA allow us creating NER systems using multiple datasets without having to worry about whether the tagset (e.g. Location, Event, Miscellaneous, Time) in the source and target domains match, while increasing the amount of data available for training. Moreover, we boosted the prediction on named entities by marking uppercase words and predicting masked words. Participating in the 3rd Shared Task on SlavNER, our NER systems reached a strict match micro F-score of up to 0.908. The results demonstrate good generalization, even in named entities with weak regularity, such as book titles, or entities that were never seen during the training.

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Benchmarking Pre-trained Language Models for Multilingual NER: TraSpaS at the BSNLP2021 Shared Task
Marek Suppa | Ondrej Jariabka

In this paper we describe TraSpaS, a submission to the third shared task on named entity recognition hosted as part of the Balto-Slavic Natural Language Processing (BSNLP) Workshop. In it we evaluate various pre-trained language models on the NER task using three open-source NLP toolkits: character level language model with Stanza, language-specific BERT-style models with SpaCy and Adapter-enabled XLM-R with Trankit. Our results show that the Trankit-based models outperformed those based on the other two toolkits, even when trained on smaller amounts of data. Our code is available at https://github.com/NaiveNeuron/slavner-2021.

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Named Entity Recognition and Linking Augmented with Large-Scale Structured Data
Paweł Rychlikowski | Bartłomiej Najdecki | Adrian Lancucki | Adam Kaczmarek

In this paper we describe our submissions to the 2nd and 3rd SlavNER Shared Tasks held at BSNLP 2019 and BSNLP 2021, respectively. The tasks focused on the analysis of Named Entities in multilingual Web documents in Slavic languages with rich inflection. Our solution takes advantage of large collections of both unstructured and structured documents. The former serve as data for unsupervised training of language models and embeddings of lexical units. The latter refers to Wikipedia and its structured counterpart - Wikidata, our source of lemmatization rules, and real-world entities. With the aid of those resources, our system could recognize, normalize and link entities, while being trained with only small amounts of labeled data.

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Slav-NER: the 3rd Cross-lingual Challenge on Recognition, Normalization, Classification, and Linking of Named Entities across Slavic Languages
Jakub Piskorski | Bogdan Babych | Zara Kancheva | Olga Kanishcheva | Maria Lebedeva | Michał Marcińczuk | Preslav Nakov | Petya Osenova | Lidia Pivovarova | Senja Pollak | Pavel Přibáň | Ivaylo Radev | Marko Robnik-Sikonja | Vasyl Starko | Josef Steinberger | Roman Yangarber

This paper describes Slav-NER: the 3rd Multilingual Named Entity Challenge in Slavic languages. The tasks involve recognizing mentions of named entities in Web documents, normalization of the names, and cross-lingual linking. The Challenge covers six languages and five entity types, and is organized as part of the 8th Balto-Slavic Natural Language Processing Workshop, co-located with the EACL 2021 Conference. Ten teams participated in the competition. Performance for the named entity recognition task reached 90% F-measure, much higher than reported in the first edition of the Challenge. Seven teams covered all six languages, and five teams participated in the cross-lingual entity linking task. Detailed valuation information is available on the shared task web page.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Fifth Workshop on Computational Approaches to Linguistic Code-Switching

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Proceedings of the Fifth Workshop on Computational Approaches to Linguistic Code-Switching
Thamar Solorio | Shuguang Chen | Alan W. Black | Mona Diab | Sunayana Sitaram | Victor Soto | Emre Yilmaz | Anirudh Srinivasan

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Political Discourse Analysis: A Case Study of Code Mixing and Code Switching in Political Speeches
Dama Sravani | Lalitha Kameswari | Radhika Mamidi

Political discourse is one of the most interesting data to study power relations in the framework of Critical Discourse Analysis. With the increase in the modes of textual and spoken forms of communication, politicians use language and linguistic mechanisms that contribute significantly in building their relationship with people, especially in a multilingual country like India with many political parties with different ideologies. This paper analyses code-mixing and code-switching in Telugu political speeches to determine the factors responsible for their usage levels in various social settings and communicative contexts. We also compile a detailed set of rules capturing dialectal variations between Standard and Telangana dialects of Telugu.

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Challenges and Limitations with the Metrics Measuring the Complexity of Code-Mixed Text
Vivek Srivastava | Mayank Singh

Code-mixing is a frequent communication style among multilingual speakers where they mix words and phrases from two different languages in the same utterance of text or speech. Identifying and filtering code-mixed text is a challenging task due to its co-existence with monolingual and noisy text. Over the years, several code-mixing metrics have been extensively used to identify and validate code-mixed text quality. This paper demonstrates several inherent limitations of code-mixing metrics with examples from the already existing datasets that are popularly used across various experiments.

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Translate and Classify: Improving Sequence Level Classification for English-Hindi Code-Mixed Data
Devansh Gautam | Kshitij Gupta | Manish Shrivastava

Code-mixing is a common phenomenon in multilingual societies around the world and is especially common in social media texts. Traditional NLP systems, usually trained on monolingual corpora, do not perform well on code-mixed texts. Training specialized models for code-switched texts is difficult due to the lack of large-scale datasets. Translating code-mixed data into standard languages like English could improve performance on various code-mixed tasks since we can use transfer learning from state-of-the-art English models for processing the translated data. This paper focuses on two sequence-level classification tasks for English-Hindi code mixed texts, which are part of the GLUECoS benchmark - Natural Language Inference and Sentiment Analysis. We propose using various pre-trained models that have been fine-tuned for similar English-only tasks and have shown state-of-the-art performance. We further fine-tune these models on the translated code-mixed datasets and achieve state-of-the-art performance in both tasks. To translate English-Hindi code-mixed data to English, we use mBART, a pre-trained multilingual sequence-to-sequence model that has shown competitive performance on various low-resource machine translation pairs and has also shown performance gains in languages that were not in its pre-training corpus.

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Gated Convolutional Sequence to Sequence Based Learning for English-Hingilsh Code-Switched Machine Translation.
Suman Dowlagar | Radhika Mamidi

Code-Switching is the embedding of linguistic units or phrases from two or more languages in a single sentence. This phenomenon is practiced in all multilingual communities and is prominent in social media. Consequently, there is a growing need to understand code-switched translations by translating the code-switched text into one of the standard languages or vice versa. Neural Machine translation is a well-studied research problem in the monolingual text. In this paper, we have used the gated convolutional sequences to sequence networks for English-Hinglish translation. The convolutions in the model help to identify the compositional structure in the sequences more easily. The model relies on gating and performs multiple attention steps at encoder and decoder layers.

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IITP-MT at CALCS2021: English to Hinglish Neural Machine Translation using Unsupervised Synthetic Code-Mixed Parallel Corpus
Ramakrishna Appicharla | Kamal Kumar Gupta | Asif Ekbal | Pushpak Bhattacharyya

This paper describes the system submitted by IITP-MT team to Computational Approaches to Linguistic Code-Switching (CALCS 2021) shared task on MT for English→Hinglish. We submit a neural machine translation (NMT) system which is trained on the synthetic code-mixed (cm) English-Hinglish parallel corpus. We propose an approach to create code-mixed parallel corpus from a clean parallel corpus in an unsupervised manner. It is an alignment based approach and we do not use any linguistic resources for explicitly marking any token for code-switching. We also train NMT model on the gold corpus provided by the workshop organizers augmented with the generated synthetic code-mixed parallel corpus. The model trained over the generated synthetic cm data achieves 10.09 BLEU points over the given test set.

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Exploring Text-to-Text Transformers for English to Hinglish Machine Translation with Synthetic Code-Mixing
Ganesh Jawahar | El Moatez Billah Nagoudi | Muhammad Abdul-Mageed | Laks Lakshmanan, V.S.

We describe models focused at the understudied problem of translating between monolingual and code-mixed language pairs. More specifically, we offer a wide range of models that convert monolingual English text into Hinglish (code-mixed Hindi and English). Given the recent success of pretrained language models, we also test the utility of two recent Transformer-based encoder-decoder models (i.e., mT5 and mBART) on the task finding both to work well. Given the paucity of training data for code-mixing, we also propose a dependency-free method for generating code-mixed texts from bilingual distributed representations that we exploit for improving language model performance. In particular, armed with this additional data, we adopt a curriculum learning approach where we first finetune the language models on synthetic data then on gold code-mixed data. We find that, although simple, our synthetic code-mixing method is competitive with (and in some cases is even superior to) several standard methods (backtranslation, method based on equivalence constraint theory) under a diverse set of conditions. Our work shows that the mT5 model, finetuned following the curriculum learning procedure, achieves best translation performance (12.67 BLEU). Our models place first in the overall ranking of the English-Hinglish official shared task.

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CoMeT: Towards Code-Mixed Translation Using Parallel Monolingual Sentences
Devansh Gautam | Prashant Kodali | Kshitij Gupta | Anmol Goel | Manish Shrivastava | Ponnurangam Kumaraguru

Code-mixed languages are very popular in multilingual societies around the world, yet the resources lag behind to enable robust systems on such languages. A major contributing factor is the informal nature of these languages which makes it difficult to collect code-mixed data. In this paper, we propose our system for Task 1 of CACLS 2021 to generate a machine translation system for English to Hinglish in a supervised setting. Translating in the given direction can help expand the set of resources for several tasks by translating valuable datasets from high resource languages. We propose to use mBART, a pre-trained multilingual sequence-to-sequence model, and fully utilize the pre-training of the model by transliterating the roman Hindi words in the code-mixed sentences to Devanagri script. We evaluate how expanding the input by concatenating Hindi translations of the English sentences improves mBART’s performance. Our system gives a BLEU score of 12.22 on test set. Further, we perform a detailed error analysis of our proposed systems and explore the limitations of the provided dataset and metrics.

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Investigating Code-Mixed Modern Standard Arabic-Egyptian to English Machine Translation
El Moatez Billah Nagoudi | AbdelRahim Elmadany | Muhammad Abdul-Mageed

Recent progress in neural machine translation (NMT) has made it possible to translate successfully between monolingual language pairs where large parallel data exist, with pre-trained models improving performance even further. Although there exists work on translating in code-mixed settings (where one of the pairs includes text from two or more languages), it is still unclear what recent success in NMT and language modeling exactly means for translating code-mixed text. We investigate one such context, namely MT from code-mixed Modern Standard Arabic and Egyptian Arabic (MSAEA) into English. We develop models under different conditions, employing both (i) standard end-to-end sequence-to-sequence (S2S) Transformers trained from scratch and (ii) pre-trained S2S language models (LMs). We are able to acquire reasonable performance using only MSA-EN parallel data with S2S models trained from scratch. We also find LMs fine-tuned on data from various Arabic dialects to help the MSAEA-EN task. Our work is in the context of the Shared Task on Machine Translation in Code-Switching. Our best model achieves 25.72 BLEU, placing us first on the official shared task evaluation for MSAEA-EN.

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Much Gracias: Semi-supervised Code-switch Detection for Spanish-English: How far can we get?
Dana-Maria Iliescu | Rasmus Grand | Sara Qirko | Rob van der Goot

Because of globalization, it is becoming more and more common to use multiple languages in a single utterance, also called code-switching. This results in special linguistic structures and, therefore, poses many challenges for Natural Language Processing. Existing models for language identification in code-switched data are all supervised, requiring annotated training data which is only available for a limited number of language pairs. In this paper, we explore semi-supervised approaches, that exploit out-of-domain mono-lingual training data. We experiment with word uni-grams, word n-grams, character n-grams, Viterbi Decoding, Latent Dirichlet Allocation, Support Vector Machine and Logistic Regression. The Viterbi model was the best semi-supervised model, scoring a weighted F1 score of 92.23%, whereas a fully supervised state-of-the-art BERT-based model scored 98.43%.

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A Language-aware Approach to Code-switched Morphological Tagging
Şaziye Betül Özateş | Özlem Çetinoğlu

Morphological tagging of code-switching (CS) data becomes more challenging especially when language pairs composing the CS data have different morphological representations. In this paper, we explore a number of ways of implementing a language-aware morphological tagging method and present our approach for integrating language IDs into a transformer-based framework for CS morphological tagging. We perform our set of experiments on the Turkish-German SAGT Treebank. Experimental results show that including language IDs to the learning model significantly improves accuracy over other approaches.

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Can You Traducir This? Machine Translation for Code-Switched Input
Jitao Xu | François Yvon

Code-Switching (CSW) is a common phenomenon that occurs in multilingual geographic or social contexts, which raises challenging problems for natural language processing tools. We focus here on Machine Translation (MT) of CSW texts, where we aim to simultaneously disentangle and translate the two mixed languages. Due to the lack of actual translated CSW data, we generate artificial training data from regular parallel texts. Experiments show this training strategy yields MT systems that surpass multilingual systems for code-switched texts. These results are confirmed in an alternative task aimed at providing contextual translations for a L2 writing assistant.

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On the logistical difficulties and findings of Jopara Sentiment Analysis
Marvin Agüero-Torales | David Vilares | Antonio López-Herrera

This paper addresses the problem of sentiment analysis for Jopara, a code-switching language between Guarani and Spanish. We first collect a corpus of Guarani-dominant tweets and discuss on the difficulties of finding quality data for even relatively easy-to-annotate tasks, such as sentiment analysis. Then, we train a set of neural models, including pre-trained language models, and explore whether they perform better than traditional machine learning ones in this low-resource setup. Transformer architectures obtain the best results, despite not considering Guarani during pre-training, but traditional machine learning models perform close due to the low-resource nature of the problem.

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Unsupervised Self-Training for Sentiment Analysis of Code-Switched Data
Akshat Gupta | Sargam Menghani | Sai Krishna Rallabandi | Alan W Black

Sentiment analysis is an important task in understanding social media content like customer reviews, Twitter and Facebook feeds etc. In multilingual communities around the world, a large amount of social media text is characterized by the presence of Code-Switching. Thus, it has become important to build models that can handle code-switched data. However, annotated code-switched data is scarce and there is a need for unsupervised models and algorithms. We propose a general framework called Unsupervised Self-Training and show its applications for the specific use case of sentiment analysis of code-switched data. We use the power of pre-trained BERT models for initialization and fine-tune them in an unsupervised manner, only using pseudo labels produced by zero-shot transfer. We test our algorithm on multiple code-switched languages and provide a detailed analysis of the learning dynamics of the algorithm with the aim of answering the question - ‘Does our unsupervised model understand the Code-Switched languages or does it just learn its representations?’. Our unsupervised models compete well with their supervised counterparts, with their performance reaching within 1-7% (weighted F1 scores) when compared to supervised models trained for a two class problem.

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CodemixedNLP: An Extensible and Open NLP Toolkit for Code-Mixing
Sai Muralidhar Jayanthi | Kavya Nerella | Khyathi Raghavi Chandu | Alan W Black

The NLP community has witnessed steep progress in a variety of tasks across the realms of monolingual and multilingual language processing recently. These successes, in conjunction with the proliferating mixed language interactions on social media, have boosted interest in modeling code-mixed texts. In this work, we present CodemixedNLP, an open-source library with the goals of bringing together the advances in code-mixed NLP and opening it up to a wider machine learning community. The library consists of tools to develop and benchmark versatile model architectures that are tailored for mixed texts, methods to expand training sets, techniques to quantify mixing styles, and fine-tuned state-of-the-art models for 7 tasks in Hinglish. We believe this work has the potential to foster a distributed yet collaborative and sustainable ecosystem in an otherwise dispersed space of code-mixing research. The toolkit is designed to be simple, easily extensible, and resourceful to both researchers as well as practitioners. Demo: http://k-ikkees.pc.cs.cmu.edu:5000 and Library: https://github.com/murali1996/CodemixedNLP

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Normalization and Back-Transliteration for Code-Switched Data
Dwija Parikh | Thamar Solorio

Code-switching is an omnipresent phenomenon in multilingual communities all around the world but remains a challenge for NLP systems due to the lack of proper data and processing techniques. Hindi-English code-switched text on social media is often transliterated to the Roman script which prevents from utilizing monolingual resources available in the native Devanagari script. In this paper, we propose a method to normalize and back-transliterate code-switched Hindi-English text. In addition, we present a grapheme-to-phoneme (G2P) conversion technique for romanized Hindi data. We also release a dataset of script-corrected Hindi-English code-switched sentences labeled for the named entity recognition and part-of-speech tagging tasks to facilitate further research.

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Abusive content detection in transliterated Bengali-English social media corpus
Salim Sazzed

Abusive text detection in low-resource languages such as Bengali is a challenging task due to the inadequacy of resources and tools. The ubiquity of transliterated Bengali comments in social media makes the task even more involved as monolingual approaches cannot capture them. Unfortunately, no transliterated Bengali corpus is publicly available yet for abusive content analysis. Therefore, in this paper, we introduce an annotated Bengali corpus of 3000 transliterated Bengali comments categorized into two classes, abusive and non-abusive, 1500 comments for each. For baseline evaluations, we employ several supervised machine learning (ML) and deep learning-based classifiers. We find support vector machine (SVM) shows the highest efficacy for identifying abusive content. We make the annotated corpus freely available for the researcher to aid abusive content detection in Bengali social media data.

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Developing ASR for Indonesian-English Bilingual Language Teaching
Zara Maxwell-Smith | Ben Foley

Usage-based analyses of teacher corpora and code-switching (Boztepe, 2003) are an important next stage in understanding language acquisition. Multilingual corpora are difficult to compile and a classroom setting adds pedagogy to the mix of factors which make this data so rich and problematic to classify. Using quantitative methods to understand language learning and teaching is difficult work as the ‘transcription bottleneck’ constrains the size of datasets. We found that using an automatic speech recognition (ASR) toolkit with a small set of training data is likely to speed data collection in this context (Maxwelll-Smith et al., 2020).

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Transliteration for Low-Resource Code-Switching Texts: Building an Automatic Cyrillic-to-Latin Converter for Tatar
Chihiro Taguchi | Yusuke Sakai | Taro Watanabe

We introduce a Cyrillic-to-Latin transliterator for the Tatar language based on subword-level language identification. The transliteration is a challenging task due to the following two reasons. First, because modern Tatar texts often contain intra-word code-switching to Russian, a different transliteration set of rules needs to be applied to each morpheme depending on the language, which necessitates morpheme-level language identification. Second, the fact that Tatar is a low-resource language, with most of the texts in Cyrillic, makes it difficult to prepare a sufficient dataset. Given this situation, we proposed a transliteration method based on subword-level language identification. We trained a language classifier with monolingual Tatar and Russian texts, and applied different transliteration rules in accord with the identified language. The results demonstrate that our proposed method outscores other Tatar transliteration tools, and imply that it correctly transcribes Russian loanwords to some extent.

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Code-Mixing on Sesame Street: Dawn of the Adversarial Polyglots
Samson Tan | Shafiq Joty

Multilingual models have demonstrated impressive cross-lingual transfer performance. However, test sets like XNLI are monolingual at the example level. In multilingual communities, it is common for polyglots to code-mix when conversing with each other. Inspired by this phenomenon, we present two strong black-box adversarial attacks (one word-level, one phrase-level) for multilingual models that push their ability to handle code-mixed sentences to the limit. The former (PolyGloss) uses bilingual dictionaries to propose perturbations and translations of the clean example for sense disambiguation. The latter (Bumblebee) directly aligns the clean example with its translations before extracting phrases as perturbations. Bumblebee has a success rate of 89.75% against XLM-R-large, bringing its average accuracy of 79.85 down to 8.18 on XNLI. Finally, we propose an efficient adversarial training scheme, Code-mixed Adversarial Training (CAT), that trains in the same number of steps as the original model. Even after controlling for the extra training data introduced, CAT improves model accuracy when the model is prevented from relying on lexical overlaps (+3.45), with a negligible drop (-0.15 points) in performance on the original XNLI test set. t-SNE visualizations reveal that CAT improves a model’s language agnosticity. This paper will be published in the proceedings of NAACL-HLT 2021.

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Are Multilingual Models Effective in Code-Switching?
Genta Indra Winata | Samuel Cahyawijaya | Zihan Liu | Zhaojiang Lin | Andrea Madotto | Pascale Fung

Multilingual language models have shown decent performance in multilingual and cross-lingual natural language understanding tasks. However, the power of these multilingual models in code-switching tasks has not been fully explored. In this paper, we study the effectiveness of multilingual language models to understand their capability and adaptability to the mixed-language setting by considering the inference speed, performance, and number of parameters to measure their practicality. We conduct experiments in three language pairs on named entity recognition and part-of-speech tagging and compare them with existing methods, such as using bilingual embeddings and multilingual meta-embeddings. Our findings suggest that pre-trained multilingual models do not necessarily guarantee high-quality representations on code-switching, while using meta-embeddings achieves similar results with significantly fewer parameters.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on Challenges and Applications of Automated Extraction of Socio-political Events from Text (CASE 2021)

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Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on Challenges and Applications of Automated Extraction of Socio-political Events from Text (CASE 2021)
Ali Hürriyetoğlu

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Challenges and Applications of Automated Extraction of Socio-political Events from Text (CASE 2021): Workshop and Shared Task Report
Ali Hürriyetoğlu | Hristo Tanev | Vanni Zavarella | Jakub Piskorski | Reyyan Yeniterzi | Osman Mutlu | Deniz Yuret | Aline Villavicencio

This workshop is the fourth issue of a series of workshops on automatic extraction of socio-political events from news, organized by the Emerging Market Welfare Project, with the support of the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission and with contributions from many other prominent scholars in this field. The purpose of this series of workshops is to foster research and development of reliable, valid, robust, and practical solutions for automatically detecting descriptions of socio-political events, such as protests, riots, wars and armed conflicts, in text streams. This year workshop contributors make use of the state-of-the-art NLP technologies, such as Deep Learning, Word Embeddings and Transformers and cover a wide range of topics from text classification to news bias detection. Around 40 teams have registered and 15 teams contributed to three tasks that are i) multilingual protest news detection detection, ii) fine-grained classification of socio-political events, and iii) discovering Black Lives Matter protest events. The workshop also highlights two keynote and four invited talks about various aspects of creating event data sets and multi- and cross-lingual machine learning in few- and zero-shot settings.

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Keynote Abstract: Events on a Global Scale: Towards Language-Agnostic Event Extraction
Elizabeth Boschee

Event extraction is a challenging and exciting task in the world of machine learning & natural language processing. The breadth of events of possible interest, the speed at which surrounding socio-political event contexts evolve, and the complexities involved in generating representative annotated data all contribute to this challenge. One particular dimension of difficulty is the intrinsically global nature of events: many downstream use cases for event extraction involve reporting not just in a few major languages but in a much broader context. The languages of interest for even a fixed task may still shift from day to day, e.g. when a disease emerges in an unexpected location. Early approaches to multi-lingual event extraction (e.g. ACE) relied wholly on supervised data provided in each language of interest. Later approaches leveraged the success of machine translation to side-step the issue, simply translating foreign-language content to English and deploying English models on the result (often leaving some significant portion of the original content behind). Most recently, however, the community has begun to shown significant progress applying zero-shot transfer techniques to the problem, developing models using supervised English data but decoding in a foreign language without translation, typically using embedding spaces specifically designed to capture multi-lingual semantic content. In this talk I will discuss multiple dimensions of these promising new approaches and the linguistic representations that underlie them. I will compare them with approaches based on machine translation (as well as with models trained using in-language training data, where available), and discuss their strengths and weaknesses in different contexts, including the amount of English/foreign bitext available and the nature of the target event ontology. I will also discuss possible future directions with an eye to improving the quality of event extraction no matter its source around the globe.

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Keynote Abstract: Machine Learning in Conflict Studies: Reflections on Ethics, Collaboration, and Ongoing Challenges
Kristine Eck

Advances in machine learning are nothing short of revolutionary in their potential to analyze massive amounts of data and in doing so, create new knowledge bases. But there is a responsibility in wielding the power to analyze these data since the public attributes a high degree of confidence to results which are based on big datasets. In this keynote, I will first address our ethical imperative as scholars to “get it right.” This imperative relates not only to model precision but also to the quality of the underlying data, and to whether the models inadvertently reproduce or obscure political biases in the source material. In considering the ethical imperative to get it right, it is also important to define what is “right”: what is considered an acceptable threshold for classification success needs to be understood in light of the project’s objectives. I then reflect on the different topics and data which are sourced in this field. Much of the existing research has focused on identifying conflict events (e.g. battles), but scholars are also increasingly turning to ML approaches to address other facets of the conflict environment. Conflict event extraction has long been a challenge for the natural language processing (NLP) community because it requires sophisticated methods for defining event ontologies, creating language resources, and developing algorithmic approaches. NLP machine-learning tools are ill-adapted to the complex, often messy, and diverse data generated during conflicts. Relative to other types of NLP text corpora, conflicts tend to generate less textual data, and texts are generated non-systematically. Conflict-related texts are often lexically idiosyncratic and tend to be written differently across actors, periods, and conflicts. Event definition and adjudication present tough challenges in the context of conflict corpora. Topics which rely on other types of data may be better-suited to NLP and machine learning methods. For example, Twitter and other social media data lend themselves well to studying hate speech, public opinion, social polarization, or discursive aspects of conflictual environments. Likewise, government-produced policy documents have typically been analyzed with historical, qualitative methods but their standardized formats and quantity suggest that ML methods can provide new traction. ML approaches may also allow scholars to exploit local sources and multi-language sources to a greater degree than has been possible. Many challenges remain, and these are best addressed in collaborative projects which build on interdisciplinary expertise. Classification projects need to be anchored in the theoretical interests of scholars of political violence if the data they produce are to be put to analytical use. There are few ontologies for classification that adequately reflect conflict researchers’ interests, which highlights the need for conceptual as well as technical development.

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PROTEST-ER: Retraining BERT for Protest Event Extraction
Tommaso Caselli | Osman Mutlu | Angelo Basile | Ali Hürriyetoğlu

We analyze the effect of further retraining BERT with different domain specific data as an unsupervised domain adaptation strategy for event extraction. Portability of event extraction models is particularly challenging, with large performance drops affecting data on the same text genres (e.g., news). We present PROTEST-ER, a retrained BERT model for protest event extraction. PROTEST-ER outperforms a corresponding generic BERT on out-of-domain data of 8.1 points. Our best performing models reach 51.91-46.39 F1 across both domains.

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ArgFuse: A Weakly-Supervised Framework for Document-Level Event Argument Aggregation
Debanjana Kar | Sudeshna Sarkar | Pawan Goyal

Most of the existing information extraction frameworks (Wadden et al., 2019; Veysehet al., 2020) focus on sentence-level tasks and are hardly able to capture the consolidated information from a given document. In our endeavour to generate precise document-level information frames from lengthy textual records, we introduce the task of Information Aggregation or Argument Aggregation. More specifically, our aim is to filter irrelevant and redundant argument mentions that were extracted at a sentence level and render a document level information frame. Majority of the existing works have been observed to resolve related tasks of document-level event argument extraction (Yang et al., 2018; Zheng et al., 2019) and salient entity identification (Jain et al., 2020) using supervised techniques. To remove dependency from large amounts of labelled data, we explore the task of information aggregation using weakly supervised techniques. In particular, we present an extractive algorithm with multiple sieves which adopts active learning strategies to work efficiently in low-resource settings. For this task, we have annotated our own test dataset comprising of 131 document information frames and have released the code and dataset to further research prospects in this new domain. To the best of our knowledge, we are the first to establish baseline results for this task in English. Our data and code are publicly available at https://github.com/DebanjanaKar/ArgFuse.

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Modality and Negation in Event Extraction
Sander Bijl de Vroe | Liane Guillou | Miloš Stanojević | Nick McKenna | Mark Steedman

Language provides speakers with a rich system of modality for expressing thoughts about events, without being committed to their actual occurrence. Modality is commonly used in the political news domain, where both actual and possible courses of events are discussed. NLP systems struggle with these semantic phenomena, often incorrectly extracting events which did not happen, which can lead to issues in downstream applications. We present an open-domain, lexicon-based event extraction system that captures various types of modality. This information is valuable for Question Answering, Knowledge Graph construction and Fact-checking tasks, and our evaluation shows that the system is sufficiently strong to be used in downstream applications.

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Characterizing News Portrayal of Civil Unrest in Hong Kong, 1998–2020
James Scharf | Arya D. McCarthy | Giovanna Maria Dora Dore

We apply statistical techniques from natural language processing to a collection of Western and Hong Kong–based English-language newspaper articles spanning the years 1998–2020, studying the difference and evolution of its portrayal. We observe that both content and attitudes differ between Western and Hong Kong–based sources. ANOVA on keyword frequencies reveals that Hong Kong–based papers discuss protests and democracy less often. Topic modeling detects salient aspects of protests and shows that Hong Kong–based papers made fewer references to police violence during the Anti–Extradition Law Amendment Bill Movement. Diachronic shifts in word embedding neighborhoods reveal a shift in the characterization of salient keywords once the Movement emerged. Together, these raise questions about the existence of anodyne reporting from Hong Kong–based media. Likewise, they illustrate the importance of sample selection for protest event analysis.

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Regressing Location on Text for Probabilistic Geocoding
Benjamin J. Radford

Text data are an important source of detailed information about social and political events. Automated systems parse large volumes of text data to infer or extract structured information that describes actors, actions, dates, times, and locations. One of these sub-tasks is geocoding: predicting the geographic coordinates associated with events or locations described by a given text. I present an end-to-end probabilistic model for geocoding text data. Additionally, I collect a novel data set for evaluating the performance of geocoding systems. I compare the model-based solution, called ELECTRo-map, to the current state-of-the-art open source system for geocoding texts for event data. Finally, I discuss the benefits of end-to-end model-based geocoding, including principled uncertainty estimation and the ability of these models to leverage contextual information.

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Extracting Events from Industrial Incident Reports
Nitin Ramrakhiyani | Swapnil Hingmire | Sangameshwar Patil | Alok Kumar | Girish Palshikar

Incidents in industries have huge social and political impact and minimizing the consequent damage has been a high priority. However, automated analysis of repositories of incident reports has remained a challenge. In this paper, we focus on automatically extracting events from incident reports. Due to absence of event annotated datasets for industrial incidents we employ a transfer learning based approach which is shown to outperform several baselines. We further provide detailed analysis regarding effect of increase in pre-training data and provide explainability of why pre-training improves the performance.

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Automatic Fake News Detection in Political Platforms - A Transformer-based Approach
Shaina Raza

The dynamics and influence of fake news on Twitter during the 2020 US presidential election remains to be clarified. Here, we use a dataset related to 2020 U.S Election that consists of news articles and tweets on those articles. Therefore, it is extremely important to stop the spread of fake news before it reaches a mass level, which is a big challenge. We propose a novel fake news detection framework that can address this challenge. Our proposed framework exploits the information from news articles and social contexts to detect fake news. The proposed model is based on a Transformer architecture, which can learn useful representations from fake news data and predicts the probability of a news as being fake or real. Experimental results on real-world data show that our model can detect fake news with higher accuracy and much earlier, compared to the baselines.

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Multilingual Protest News Detection - Shared Task 1, CASE 2021
Ali Hürriyetoğlu | Osman Mutlu | Erdem Yörük | Farhana Ferdousi Liza | Ritesh Kumar | Shyam Ratan

Benchmarking state-of-the-art text classification and information extraction systems in multilingual, cross-lingual, few-shot, and zero-shot settings for socio-political event information collection is achieved in the scope of the shared task Socio-political and Crisis Events Detection at the workshop CASE @ ACL-IJCNLP 2021. Socio-political event data is utilized for national and international policy- and decision-making. Therefore, the reliability and validity of these datasets are of the utmost importance. We split the shared task into three parts to address the three aspects of data collection (Task 1), fine-grained semantic classification (Task 2), and evaluation (Task 3). Task 1, which is the focus of this report, is on multilingual protest news detection and comprises four subtasks that are document classification (subtask 1), sentence classification (subtask 2), event sentence coreference identification (subtask 3), and event extraction (subtask 4). All subtasks had English, Portuguese, and Spanish for both training and evaluation data. Data in Hindi language was available only for the evaluation of subtask 1. The majority of the submissions, which are 238 in total, are created using multi- and cross-lingual approaches. Best scores are above 77.27 F1-macro for subtask 1, above 85.32 F1-macro for subtask 2, above 84.23 CoNLL 2012 average score for subtask 3, and above 66.20 F1-macro for subtask 4 in all evaluation settings. The performance of the best system for subtask 4 is above 66.20 F1 for all available languages. Although there is still a significant room for improvement in cross-lingual and zero-shot settings, the best submissions for each evaluation scenario yield remarkable results. Monolingual models outperformed the multilingual models in a few evaluation scenarios.

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Shared Task 1 System Description : Exploring different approaches for multilingual tasks
Sureshkumar Vivek Kalyan | Tan Paul | Tan Shaun | Martin Andrews

The aim of the CASE 2021 Shared Task 1 was to detect and classify socio-political and crisis event information at document, sentence, cross-sentence, and token levels in a multilingual setting, with each of these subtasks being evaluated separately in each test language. Our submission contained entries in all of the subtasks, and the scores obtained validated our research finding : That the multilingual element of the tasks should be embraced, so that modeling and training regimes use the multilingual nature of the tasks to their mutual benefit, rather than trying to tackle the different languages separately.

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IIITT at CASE 2021 Task 1: Leveraging Pretrained Language Models for Multilingual Protest Detection
Pawan Kalyan | Duddukunta Reddy | Adeep Hande | Ruba Priyadharshini | Ratnasingam Sakuntharaj | Bharathi Raja Chakravarthi

In a world abounding in constant protests resulting from events like a global pandemic, climate change, religious or political conflicts, there has always been a need to detect events/protests before getting amplified by news media or social media. This paper demonstrates our work on the sentence classification subtask of multilingual protest detection in CASE@ACL-IJCNLP 2021. We approached this task by employing various multilingual pre-trained transformer models to classify if any sentence contains information about an event that has transpired or not. We performed soft voting over the models, achieving the best results among the models, accomplishing a macro F1-Score of 0.8291, 0.7578, and 0.7951 in English, Spanish, and Portuguese, respectively.

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NUS-IDS at CASE 2021 Task 1: Improving Multilingual Event Sentence Coreference Identification With Linguistic Information
Fiona Anting Tan | Sujatha Das Gollapalli | See-Kiong Ng

Event Sentence Coreference Identification (ESCI) aims to cluster event sentences that refer to the same event together for information extraction. We describe our ESCI solution developed for the ACL-CASE 2021 shared tasks on the detection and classification of socio-political and crisis event information in a multilingual setting. For a given article, our proposed pipeline comprises of an accurate sentence pair classifier that identifies coreferent sentence pairs and subsequently uses these predicted probabilities to cluster sentences into groups. Sentence pair representations are constructed from fine-tuned BERT embeddings plus POS embeddings fed through a BiLSTM model, and combined with linguistic-based lexical and semantic similarities between sentences. Our best models ranked 2nd, 1st and 2nd and obtained CoNLL F1 scores of 81.20%, 93.03%, 83.15% for the English, Portuguese and Spanish test sets respectively in the ACL-CASE 2021 competition.

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FKIE_itf_2021 at CASE 2021 Task 1: Using Small Densely Fully Connected Neural Nets for Event Detection and Clustering
Nils Becker | Theresa Krumbiegel

In this paper we present multiple approaches for event detection on document and sentence level, as well as a technique for event sentence co-reference resolution. The advantage of our co-reference resolution approach, which handles the task as a clustering problem, is that we use a single neural net to solve the task, which stands in contrast to other clustering algorithms that often are build on more complex models. This means that we can set our focus on the optimization of a single neural network instead of having to optimize numerous different parameters. We use small densely connected neural networks and pre-trained multilingual transformer embeddings in all subtasks. We use either document or sentence embeddings, depending on the task, and refrain from using word embeddings, so that the implementation of complicated network structures and unfolding of RNNs, which can deal with input of different sizes, is not necessary. We achieved an average macro F1 of 0.65 in subtask 1 (i.e., document level classification), and a macro F1 of 0.70 in subtask 2 (i.e., sentence level classification). For the co-reference resolution subtask, we achieved an average CoNLL-2012 score across all languages of 0.83.

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DAAI at CASE 2021 Task 1: Transformer-based Multilingual Socio-political and Crisis Event Detection
Hansi Hettiarachchi | Mariam Adedoyin-Olowe | Jagdev Bhogal | Mohamed Medhat Gaber

Automatic socio-political and crisis event detection has been a challenge for natural language processing as well as social and political science communities, due to the diversity and nuance in such events and high accuracy requirements. In this paper, we propose an approach which can handle both document and cross-sentence level event detection in a multilingual setting using pretrained transformer models. Our approach became the winning solution in document level predictions and secured the 3rd place in cross-sentence level predictions for the English language. We could also achieve competitive results for other languages to prove the effectiveness and universality of our approach.

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SU-NLP at CASE 2021 Task 1: Protest News Detection for English
Furkan Çelik | Tuğberk Dalkılıç | Fatih Beyhan | Reyyan Yeniterzi

This paper summarizes our group’s efforts in the multilingual protest news detection shared task, which is organized as a part of the Challenges and Applications of Automated Extraction of Socio-political Events from Text (CASE) Workshop. We participated in all four subtasks in English. Especially in the identification of event containing sentences task, our proposed ensemble approach using RoBERTa and multichannel CNN-LexStem model yields higher performance. Similarly in the event extraction task, our transformer-LSTM-CRF architecture outperforms regular transformers significantly.

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IBM MNLP IE at CASE 2021 Task 1: Multigranular and Multilingual Event Detection on Protest News
Parul Awasthy | Jian Ni | Ken Barker | Radu Florian

In this paper, we present the event detection models and systems we have developed for Multilingual Protest News Detection - Shared Task 1 at CASE 2021. The shared task has 4 subtasks which cover event detection at different granularity levels (from document level to token level) and across multiple languages (English, Hindi, Portuguese and Spanish). To handle data from multiple languages, we use a multilingual transformer-based language model (XLM-R) as the input text encoder. We apply a variety of techniques and build several transformer-based models that perform consistently well across all the subtasks and languages. Our systems achieve an average F_1 score of 81.2. Out of thirteen subtask-language tracks, our submissions rank 1st in nine and 2nd in four tracks.

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ALEM at CASE 2021 Task 1: Multilingual Text Classification on News Articles
Alaeddin Gürel | Emre Emin

We participated CASE shared task in ACL-IJCNLP 2021. This paper is a summary of our experiments and ideas about this shared task. For each subtask we shared our approach, successful and failed methods and our thoughts about them. We submit our results once for every subtask, except for subtask3, in task submission system and present scores based on our validation set formed from given training samples in this paper. Techniques and models we mentioned includes BERT, Multilingual BERT, oversampling, undersampling, data augmentation and their implications with each other. Most of the experiments we came up with were not completed, as time did not permit, but we share them here as we plan to do them as suggested in the future work part of document.

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Team “NoConflict” at CASE 2021 Task 1: Pretraining for Sentence-Level Protest Event Detection
Tiancheng Hu | Niklas Stoehr

An ever-increasing amount of text, in the form of social media posts and news articles, gives rise to new challenges and opportunities for the automatic extraction of socio-political events. In this paper, we present our submission to the Shared Tasks on Socio-Political and Crisis Events Detection, Task 1, Multilingual Protest News Detection, Subtask 2, Event Sentence Classification, of CASE @ ACL-IJCNLP 2021. In our submission, we utilize the RoBERTa model with additional pretraining, and achieve the best F1 score of 0.8532 in event sentence classification in English and the second-best F1 score of 0.8700 in Portuguese via simple translation. We analyze the failure cases of our model. We also conduct an ablation study to show the effect of choosing the right pretrained language model, adding additional training data and data augmentation.

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AMU-EURANOVA at CASE 2021 Task 1: Assessing the stability of multilingual BERT
Léo Bouscarrat | Antoine Bonnefoy | Cécile Capponi | Carlos Ramisch

This paper explains our participation in task 1 of the CASE 2021 shared task. This task is about multilingual event extraction from news. We focused on sub-task 4, event information extraction. This sub-task has a small training dataset and we fine-tuned a multilingual BERT to solve this sub-task. We studied the instability problem on the dataset and tried to mitigate it.

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Team “DaDeFrNi” at CASE 2021 Task 1: Document and Sentence Classification for Protest Event Detection
Francesco Re | Daniel Vegh | Dennis Atzenhofer | Niklas Stoehr

This paper accompanies our top-performing submission to the CASE 2021 shared task, which is hosted at the workshop on Challenges and Applications of Automated Extraction of Socio-political Events from Text. Subtasks 1 and 2 of Task 1 concern the classification of newspaper articles and sentences into “conflict” versus “not conflict”-related in four different languages. Our model performs competitively in both subtasks (up to 0.8662 macro F1), obtaining the highest score of all contributions for subtask 1 on Hindi articles (0.7877 macro F1). We describe all experiments conducted with the XLM-RoBERTa (XLM-R) model and report results obtained in each binary classification task. We propose supplementing the original training data with additional data on political conflict events. In addition, we provide an analysis of unigram probability estimates and geospatial references contained within the original training corpus.

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Fine-grained Event Classification in News-like Text Snippets - Shared Task 2, CASE 2021
Jacek Haneczok | Guillaume Jacquet | Jakub Piskorski | Nicolas Stefanovitch

This paper describes the Shared Task on Fine-grained Event Classification in News-like Text Snippets. The Shared Task is divided into three sub-tasks: (a) classification of text snippets reporting socio-political events (25 classes) for which vast amount of training data exists, although exhibiting different structure and style vis-a-vis test data, (b) enhancement to a generalized zero-shot learning problem, where 3 additional event types were introduced in advance, but without any training data (‘unseen’ classes), and (c) further extension, which introduced 2 additional event types, announced shortly prior to the evaluation phase. The reported Shared Task focuses on classification of events in English texts and is organized as part of the Workshop on Challenges and Applications of Automated Extraction of Socio-political Events from Text (CASE 2021), co-located with the ACL-IJCNLP 2021 Conference. Four teams participated in the task. Best performing systems for the three aforementioned sub-tasks achieved 83.9%, 79.7% and 77.1% weighted F1 scores respectively.

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IBM MNLP IE at CASE 2021 Task 2: NLI Reranking for Zero-Shot Text Classification
Ken Barker | Parul Awasthy | Jian Ni | Radu Florian

Supervised models can achieve very high accuracy for fine-grained text classification. In practice, however, training data may be abundant for some types but scarce or even non-existent for others. We propose a hybrid architecture that uses as much labeled data as available for fine-tuning classification models, while also allowing for types with little (few-shot) or no (zero-shot) labeled data. In particular, we pair a supervised text classification model with a Natural Language Inference (NLI) reranking model. The NLI reranker uses a textual representation of target types that allows it to score the strength with which a type is implied by a text, without requiring training data for the types. Experiments show that the NLI model is very sensitive to the choice of textual representation, but can be effective for classifying unseen types. It can also improve classification accuracy for the known types of an already highly accurate supervised model.

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CASE 2021 Task 2: Zero-Shot Classification of Fine-Grained Sociopolitical Events with Transformer Models
Benjamin J. Radford

We introduce a method for the classification of texts into fine-grained categories of sociopolitical events. This particular method is responsive to all three Subtasks of Task 2, Fine-Grained Classification of Socio-Political Events, introduced at the CASE workshop of ACL-IJCNLP 2021. We frame Task 2 as textual entailment: given an input text and a candidate event class (“query”), the model predicts whether the text describes an event of the given type. The model is able to correctly classify in-sample event types with an average F1-score of 0.74 but struggles with some out-of-sample event types. Despite this, the model shows promise for the zero-shot identification of certain sociopolitical events by achieving an F1-score of 0.52 on one wholly out-of-sample event class.

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CASE 2021 Task 2 Socio-political Fine-grained Event Classification using Fine-tuned RoBERTa Document Embeddings
Samantha Kent | Theresa Krumbiegel

We present our submission to Task 2 of the Socio-political and Crisis Events Detection Shared Task at the CASE @ ACL-IJCNLP 2021 workshop. The task at hand aims at the fine-grained classification of socio-political events. Our best model was a fine-tuned RoBERTa transformer model using document embeddings. The corpus consisted of a balanced selection of sub-events extracted from the ACLED event dataset. We achieved a macro F-score of 0.923 and a micro F-score of 0.932 during our preliminary experiments on a held-out test set. The same model also performed best on the shared task test data (weighted F-score = 0.83). To analyze the results we calculated the topic compactness of the commonly misclassified events and conducted an error analysis.

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Discovering Black Lives Matter Events in the United States: Shared Task 3, CASE 2021
Salvatore Giorgi | Vanni Zavarella | Hristo Tanev | Nicolas Stefanovitch | Sy Hwang | Hansi Hettiarachchi | Tharindu Ranasinghe | Vivek Kalyan | Paul Tan | Shaun Tan | Martin Andrews | Tiancheng Hu | Niklas Stoehr | Francesco Ignazio Re | Daniel Vegh | Dennis Atzenhofer | Brenda Curtis | Ali Hürriyetoğlu

Evaluating the state-of-the-art event detection systems on determining spatio-temporal distribution of the events on the ground is performed unfrequently. But, the ability to both (1) extract events “in the wild” from text and (2) properly evaluate event detection systems has potential to support a wide variety of tasks such as monitoring the activity of socio-political movements, examining media coverage and public support of these movements, and informing policy decisions. Therefore, we study performance of the best event detection systems on detecting Black Lives Matter (BLM) events from tweets and news articles. The murder of George Floyd, an unarmed Black man, at the hands of police officers received global attention throughout the second half of 2020. Protests against police violence emerged worldwide and the BLM movement, which was once mostly regulated to the United States, was now seeing activity globally. This shared task asks participants to identify BLM related events from large unstructured data sources, using systems pretrained to extract socio-political events from text. We evaluate several metrics, accessing each system’s ability to identify protest events both temporally and spatially. Results show that identifying daily protest counts is an easier task than classifying spatial and temporal protest trends simultaneously, with maximum performance of 0.745 and 0.210 (Pearson r), respectively. Additionally, all baselines and participant systems suffered from low recall, with a maximum recall of 5.08.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the First Workshop on Causal Inference and NLP

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Proceedings of the First Workshop on Causal Inference and NLP
Amir Feder | Katherine Keith | Emaad Manzoor | Reid Pryzant | Dhanya Sridhar | Zach Wood-Doughty | Jacob Eisenstein | Justin Grimmer | Roi Reichart | Molly Roberts | Uri Shalit | Brandon Stewart | Victor Veitch | Diyi Yang

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Causal Augmentation for Causal Sentence Classification
Fiona Anting Tan | Devamanyu Hazarika | See-Kiong Ng | Soujanya Poria | Roger Zimmermann

Scarcity of annotated causal texts leads to poor robustness when training state-of-the-art language models for causal sentence classification. In particular, we found that models misclassify on augmented sentences that have been negated or strengthened with respect to its causal meaning. This is worrying since minor linguistic differences in causal sentences can have disparate meanings. Therefore, we propose the generation of counterfactual causal sentences by creating contrast sets (Gardner et al., 2020) to be included during model training. We experimented on two model architectures and predicted on two out-of-domain corpora. While our strengthening schemes proved useful in improving model performance, for negation, regular edits were insufficient. Thus, we also introduce heuristics like shortening or multiplying root words of a sentence. By including a mixture of edits when training, we achieved performance improvements beyond the baseline across both models, and within and out of corpus’ domain, suggesting that our proposed augmentation can also help models generalize.

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Text as Causal Mediators: Research Design for Causal Estimates of Differential Treatment of Social Groups via Language Aspects
Katherine Keith | Douglas Rice | Brendan O’Connor

Using observed language to understand interpersonal interactions is important in high-stakes decision making. We propose a causal research design for observational (non-experimental) data to estimate the natural direct and indirect effects of social group signals (e.g. race or gender) on speakers’ responses with separate aspects of language as causal mediators. We illustrate the promises and challenges of this framework via a theoretical case study of the effect of an advocate’s gender on interruptions from justices during U.S. Supreme Court oral arguments. We also discuss challenges conceptualizing and operationalizing causal variables such as gender and language that comprise of many components, and we articulate technical open challenges such as temporal dependence between language mediators in conversational settings.

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Enhancing Model Robustness and Fairness with Causality: A Regularization Approach
Zhao Wang | Kai Shu | Aron Culotta

Recent work has raised concerns on the risk of spurious correlations and unintended biases in statistical machine learning models that threaten model robustness and fairness. In this paper, we propose a simple and intuitive regularization approach to integrate causal knowledge during model training and build a robust and fair model by emphasizing causal features and de-emphasizing spurious features. Specifically, we first manually identify causal and spurious features with principles inspired from the counterfactual framework of causal inference. Then, we propose a regularization approach to penalize causal and spurious features separately. By adjusting the strength of the penalty for each type of feature, we build a predictive model that relies more on causal features and less on non-causal features. We conduct experiments to evaluate model robustness and fairness on three datasets with multiple metrics. Empirical results show that the new models built with causal awareness significantly improve model robustness with respect to counterfactual texts and model fairness with respect to sensitive attributes.

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What Makes a Scientific Paper be Accepted for Publication?
Panagiotis Fytas | Georgios Rizos | Lucia Specia

Despite peer-reviewing being an essential component of academia since the 1600s, it has repeatedly received criticisms for lack of transparency and consistency. We posit that recent work in machine learning and explainable AI provide tools that enable insights into the decisions from a given peer-review process. We start by simulating the peer-review process using an ML classifier and extracting global explanations in the form of linguistic features that affect the acceptance of a scientific paper for publication on an open peer-review dataset. Second, since such global explanations do not justify causal interpretations, we propose a methodology for detecting confounding effects in natural language and generating explanations, disentangled from textual confounders, in the form of lexicons. Our proposed linguistic explanation methodology indicates the following on a case dataset of ICLR submissions: a) the organising committee follows, for the most part, the recommendations of reviewers, and b) the paper’s main characteristics that led to reviewers recommending acceptance for publication are originality, clarity and substance.

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Sensitivity Analysis for Causal Mediation through Text: an Application to Political Polarization
Graham Tierney | Alexander Volfovsky

We introduce a procedure to examine a text-as-mediator problem from a novel randomized experiment that studied the effect of conversations on political polarization. In this randomized experiment, Americans from the Democratic and Republican parties were either randomly paired with one-another to have an anonymous conversation about politics or alternatively not assigned to a conversation — change in political polarization over time was measured for all participants. This paper analyzes the text of the conversations to identify potential mediators of depolarization and is faced with a unique challenge, necessitated by the primary research hypothesis, that individuals in the control condition do not have conversations and so lack observed text data. We highlight the importance of using domain knowledge to perform dimension reduction on the text data, and describe a procedure to characterize indirect effects via text when the text is only observed in one arm of the experiment.

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A Survey of Online Hate Speech through the Causal Lens
Antigoni Founta | Lucia Specia

The societal issue of digital hostility has previously attracted a lot of attention. The topic counts an ample body of literature, yet remains prominent and challenging as ever due to its subjective nature. We posit that a better understanding of this problem will require the use of causal inference frameworks. This survey summarises the relevant research that revolves around estimations of causal effects related to online hate speech. Initially, we provide an argumentation as to why re-establishing the exploration of hate speech in causal terms is of the essence. Following that, we give an overview of the leading studies classified with respect to the direction of their outcomes, as well as an outline of all related research, and a summary of open research problems that can influence future work on the topic.

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Identifying Causal Influences on Publication Trends and Behavior: A Case Study of the Computational Linguistics Community
Maria Glenski | Svitlana Volkova

Drawing causal conclusions from observational real-world data is a very much desired but a challenging task. In this paper we present mixed-method analyses to investigate causal influences of publication trends and behavior on the adoption, persistence and retirement of certain research foci – methodologies, materials, and tasks that are of interest to the computational linguistics (CL) community. Our key findings highlight evidence of the transition to rapidly emerging methodologies in the research community (e.g., adoption of bidirectional LSTMs influencing the retirement of LSTMs), the persistent engagement with trending tasks and techniques (e.g., deep learning, embeddings, generative, and language models), the effect of scientist location from outside the US e.g., China on propensity of researching languages beyond English, and the potential impact of funding for large-scale research programs. We anticipate this work to provide useful insights about publication trends and behavior and raise the awareness about the potential for causal inference in the computational linguistics and a broader scientific community.

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It’s quality and quantity: the effect of the amount of comments on online suicidal posts
Daniel Low | Kelly Zuromski | Daniel Kessler | Satrajit S. Ghosh | Matthew K. Nock | Walter Dempsey

Every day, individuals post suicide notes on social media asking for support, resources, and reasons to live. Some posts receive few comments while others receive many. While prior studies have analyzed whether specific responses are more or less helpful, it is not clear if the quantity of comments received is beneficial in reducing symptoms or in keeping the user engaged with the platform and hence with life. In the present study, we create a large dataset of users’ first r/SuicideWatch (SW) posts from Reddit (N=21,274), collect the comments as well as the user’s subsequent posts (N=1,615,699) to determine whether they post in SW again in the future. We use propensity score stratification, a causal inference method for observational data, and estimate whether the amount of comments —as a measure of social support— increases or decreases the likelihood of posting again on SW. One hypothesis is that receiving more comments may decrease the likelihood of the user posting in SW in the future, either by reducing symptoms or because comments from untrained peers may be harmful. On the contrary, we find that receiving more comments increases the likelihood a user will post in SW again. We discuss how receiving more comments is helpful, not by permanently relieving symptoms since users make another SW post and their second posts have similar mentions of suicidal ideation, but rather by reinforcing users to seek support and remain engaged with the platform. Furthermore, since receiving only 1 comment —the most common case— decreases the likelihood of posting again by 14% on average depending on the time window, it is important to develop systems that encourage more commenting.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Seventh Workshop on Computational Linguistics and Clinical Psychology: Improving Access

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Proceedings of the Seventh Workshop on Computational Linguistics and Clinical Psychology: Improving Access
Nazli Goharian | Philip Resnik | Andrew Yates | Molly Ireland | Kate Niederhoffer | Rebecca Resnik

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Understanding who uses Reddit: Profiling individuals with a self-reported bipolar disorder diagnosis
Glorianna Jagfeld | Fiona Lobban | Paul Rayson | Steven Jones

Recently, research on mental health conditions using public online data, including Reddit, has surged in NLP and health research but has not reported user characteristics, which are important to judge generalisability of findings. This paper shows how existing NLP methods can yield information on clinical, demographic, and identity characteristics of almost 20K Reddit users who self-report a bipolar disorder diagnosis. This population consists of slightly more feminine- than masculine-gendered mainly young or middle-aged US-based adults who often report additional mental health diagnoses, which is compared with general Reddit statistics and epidemiological studies. Additionally, this paper carefully evaluates all methods and discusses ethical issues.

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On the State of Social Media Data for Mental Health Research
Keith Harrigian | Carlos Aguirre | Mark Dredze

Data-driven methods for mental health treatment and surveillance have become a major focus in computational science research in the last decade. However, progress in the domain remains bounded by the availability of adequate data. Prior systematic reviews have not necessarily made it possible to measure the degree to which data-related challenges have affected research progress. In this paper, we offer an analysis specifically on the state of social media data that exists for conducting mental health research. We do so by introducing an open-source directory of mental health datasets, annotated using a standardized schema to facilitate meta-analysis.

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Individual Differences in the Movement-Mood Relationship in Digital Life Data
Glen Coppersmith | Alex Fine | Patrick Crutchley | Joshua Carroll

Our increasingly digitized lives generate troves of data that reflect our behavior, beliefs, mood, and wellbeing. Such “digital life data” provides crucial insight into the lives of patients outside the healthcare setting that has long been lacking, from a better understanding of mundane patterns of exercise and sleep routines to harbingers of emotional crisis. Moreover, information about individual differences and personalities is encoded in digital life data. In this paper we examine the relationship between mood and movement using linguistic and biometric data, respectively. Does increased physical activity (movement) have an effect on a person’s mood (or vice-versa)? We find that weak group-level relationships between movement and mood mask interesting and often strong relationships between the two for individuals within the group. We describe these individual differences, and argue that individual variability in the relationship between movement and mood is one of many such factors that ought be taken into account in wellbeing-focused apps and AI systems.

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Dissociating Semantic and Phonemic Search Strategies in the Phonemic Verbal Fluency Task in early Dementia
Hali Lindsay | Philipp Müller | Nicklas Linz | Radia Zeghari | Mario Magued Mina | Alexandra Konig | Johannes Tröger

Effective management of dementia hinges on timely detection and precise diagnosis of the underlying cause of the syndrome at an early mild cognitive impairment (MCI) stage. Verbal fluency tasks are among the most often applied tests for early dementia detection due to their efficiency and ease of use. In these tasks, participants are asked to produce as many words as possible belonging to either a semantic category (SVF task) or a phonemic category (PVF task). Even though both SVF and PVF share neurocognitive function profiles, the PVF is typically believed to be less sensitive to measure MCI-related cognitive impairment and recent research on fine-grained automatic evaluation of VF tasks has mainly focused on the SVF. Contrary to this belief, we show that by applying state-of-the-art semantic and phonemic distance metrics in automatic analysis of PVF word productions, in-depth conclusions about production strategy of MCI patients are possible. Our results reveal a dissociation between semantically- and phonemically-guided search processes in the PVF. Specifically, we show that subjects with MCI rely less on semantic- and more on phonemic processes to guide their word production as compared to healthy controls (HC). We further show that semantic similarity-based features improve automatic MCI versus HC classification by 29% over previous approaches for the PVF. As such, these results point towards the yet underexplored utility of the PVF for in-depth assessment of cognition in MCI.

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Demonstrating the Reliability of Self-Annotated Emotion Data
Anton Malko | Cecile Paris | Andreas Duenser | Maria Kangas | Diego Molla | Ross Sparks | Stephen Wan

Vent is a specialised iOS/Android social media platform with the stated goal to encourage people to post about their feelings and explicitly label them. In this paper, we study a snapshot of more than 100 million messages obtained from the developers of Vent, together with the labels assigned by the authors of the messages. We establish the quality of the self-annotated data by conducting a qualitative analysis, a vocabulary based analysis, and by training and testing an emotion classifier. We conclude that the self-annotated labels of our corpus are indeed indicative of the emotional contents expressed in the text and thus can support more detailed analyses of emotion expression on social media, such as emotion trajectories and factors influencing them.

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Hebrew Psychological Lexicons
Natalie Shapira | Dana Atzil-Slonim | Daniel Juravski | Moran Baruch | Dana Stolowicz-Melman | Adar Paz | Tal Alfi-Yogev | Roy Azoulay | Adi Singer | Maayan Revivo | Chen Dahbash | Limor Dayan | Tamar Naim | Lidar Gez | Boaz Yanai | Adva Maman | Adam Nadaf | Elinor Sarfati | Amna Baloum | Tal Naor | Ephraim Mosenkis | Badreya Sarsour | Jany Gelfand Morgenshteyn | Yarden Elias | Liat Braun | Moria Rubin | Matan Kenigsbuch | Noa Bergwerk | Noam Yosef | Sivan Peled | Coral Avigdor | Rahav Obercyger | Rachel Mann | Tomer Alper | Inbal Beka | Ori Shapira | Yoav Goldberg

We introduce a large set of Hebrew lexicons pertaining to psychological aspects. These lexicons are useful for various psychology applications such as detecting emotional state, well being, relationship quality in conversation, identifying topics (e.g., family, work) and many more. We discuss the challenges in creating and validating lexicons in a new language, and highlight our methodological considerations in the data-driven lexicon construction process. Most of the lexicons are publicly available, which will facilitate further research on Hebrew clinical psychology text analysis. The lexicons were developed through data driven means, and verified by domain experts, clinical psychologists and psychology students, in a process of reconciliation with three judges. Development and verification relied on a dataset of a total of 872 psychotherapy session transcripts. We describe the construction process of each collection, the final resource and initial results of research studies employing this resource.

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Community-level Research on Suicidality Prediction in a Secure Environment: Overview of the CLPsych 2021 Shared Task
Sean MacAvaney | Anjali Mittu | Glen Coppersmith | Jeff Leintz | Philip Resnik

Progress on NLP for mental health — indeed, for healthcare in general — is hampered by obstacles to shared, community-level access to relevant data. We report on what is, to our knowledge, the first attempt to address this problem in mental health by conducting a shared task using sensitive data in a secure data enclave. Participating teams received access to Twitter posts donated for research, including data from users with and without suicide attempts, and did all work with the dataset entirely within a secure computational environment. We discuss the task, team results, and lessons learned to set the stage for future tasks on sensitive or confidential data.

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Determining a Person’s Suicide Risk by Voting on the Short-Term History of Tweets for the CLPsych 2021 Shared Task
Ulya Bayram | Lamia Benhiba

In this shared task, we accept the challenge of constructing models to identify Twitter users who attempted suicide based on their tweets 30 and 182 days before the adverse event’s occurrence. We explore multiple machine learning and deep learning methods to identify a person’s suicide risk based on the short-term history of their tweets. Taking the real-life applicability of the model into account, we make the design choice of classifying on the tweet level. By voting the tweet-level suicide risk scores through an ensemble of classifiers, we predict the suicidal users 30-days before the event with an 81.8% true-positives rate. Meanwhile, the tweet-level voting falls short on the six-month-long data as the number of tweets with weak suicidal ideation levels weakens the overall suicidal signals in the long term.

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Learning Models for Suicide Prediction from Social Media Posts
Ning Wang | Luo Fan | Yuvraj Shivtare | Varsha Badal | Koduvayur Subbalakshmi | Rajarathnam Chandramouli | Ellen Lee

We propose a deep learning architecture and test three other machine learning models to automatically detect individuals that will attempt suicide within (1) 30 days and (2) six months, using their social media post data provided in the CL-Psych-Challenge. Additionally, we create and extract three sets of handcrafted features for suicide detection based on the three-stage theory of suicide and prior work on emotions and the use of pronouns among persons exhibiting suicidal ideations. Extensive experimentations show that some of the traditional machine learning methods outperform the baseline with an F1 score of 0.741 and F2 score of 0.833 on subtask 1 (prediction of a suicide attempt 30 days prior). However, the proposed deep learning method outperforms the baseline with F1 score of 0.737 and F2 score of 0.843 on subtask2 (prediction of suicide 6 months prior).

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Suicide Risk Prediction by Tracking Self-Harm Aspects in Tweets: NUS-IDS at the CLPsych 2021 Shared Task
Sujatha Das Gollapalli | Guilherme Augusto Zagatti | See-Kiong Ng

We describe our system for identifying users at-risk for suicide based on their tweets developed for the CLPsych 2021 Shared Task. Based on research in mental health studies linking self-harm tendencies with suicide, in our system, we attempt to characterize self-harm aspects expressed in user tweets over a period of time. To this end, we design SHTM, a Self-Harm Topic Model that combines Latent Dirichlet Allocation with a self-harm dictionary for modeling daily tweets of users. Next, differences in moods and topics over time are captured as features to train a deep learning model for suicide prediction.

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Team 9: A Comparison of Simple vs. Complex Models for Suicide Risk Assessment
Michelle Morales | Prajjalita Dey | Kriti Kohli

This work presents the systems explored as part of the CLPsych 2021 Shared Task. More specifically, this work explores the relative performance of models trained on social me- dia data for suicide risk assessment. For this task, we aim to investigate whether or not simple traditional models can outperform more complex fine-tuned deep learning mod- els. Specifically, we build and compare a range of models including simple baseline models, feature-engineered machine learning models, and lastly, fine-tuned deep learning models. We find that simple more traditional machine learning models are more suited for this task and highlight the challenges faced when trying to leverage more sophisticated deep learning models.

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Using Psychologically-Informed Priors for Suicide Prediction in the CLPsych 2021 Shared Task
Avi Gamoran | Yonatan Kaplan | Almog Simchon | Michael Gilead

This paper describes our approach to the CLPsych 2021 Shared Task, in which we aimed to predict suicide attempts based on Twitter feed data. We addressed this challenge by emphasizing reliance on prior domain knowledge. We engineered novel theory-driven features, and integrated prior knowledge with empirical evidence in a principled manner using Bayesian modeling. While this theory-guided approach increases bias and lowers accuracy on the training set, it was successful in preventing over-fitting. The models provided reasonable classification accuracy on unseen test data (0.68<=AUC<= 0.84). Our approach may be particularly useful in prediction tasks trained on a relatively small data set.

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Analysis of Behavior Classification in Motivational Interviewing
Leili Tavabi | Trang Tran | Kalin Stefanov | Brian Borsari | Joshua Woolley | Stefan Scherer | Mohammad Soleymani

Analysis of client and therapist behavior in counseling sessions can provide helpful insights for assessing the quality of the session and consequently, the client’s behavioral outcome. In this paper, we study the automatic classification of standardized behavior codes (annotations) used for assessment of psychotherapy sessions in Motivational Interviewing (MI). We develop models and examine the classification of client behaviors throughout MI sessions, comparing the performance by models trained on large pretrained embeddings (RoBERTa) versus interpretable and expert-selected features (LIWC). Our best performing model using the pretrained RoBERTa embeddings beats the baseline model, achieving an F1 score of 0.66 in the subject-independent 3-class classification. Through statistical analysis on the classification results, we identify prominent LIWC features that may not have been captured by the model using pretrained embeddings. Although classification using LIWC features underperforms RoBERTa, our findings motivate the future direction of incorporating auxiliary tasks in the classification of MI codes.

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Automatic Detection and Prediction of Psychiatric Hospitalizations From Social Media Posts
Zhengping Jiang | Jonathan Zomick | Sarah Ita Levitan | Mark Serper | Julia Hirschberg

We address the problem of predicting psychiatric hospitalizations using linguistic features drawn from social media posts. We formulate this novel task and develop an approach to automatically extract time spans of self-reported psychiatric hospitalizations. Using this dataset, we build predictive models of psychiatric hospitalization, comparing feature sets, user vs. post classification, and comparing model performance using a varying time window of posts. Our best model achieves an F1 of .718 using 7 days of posts. Our results suggest that this is a useful framework for collecting hospitalization data, and that social media data can be leveraged to predict acute psychiatric crises before they occur, potentially saving lives and improving outcomes for individuals with mental illness.

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Automatic Identification of Ruptures in Transcribed Psychotherapy Sessions
Adam Tsakalidis | Dana Atzil-Slonim | Asaf Polakovski | Natalie Shapira | Rivka Tuval-Mashiach | Maria Liakata

We present the first work on automatically capturing alliance rupture in transcribed therapy sessions, trained on the text and self-reported rupture scores from both therapists and clients. Our NLP baseline outperforms a strong majority baseline by a large margin and captures client reported ruptures unidentified by therapists in 40% of such cases.

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Automated coherence measures fail to index thought disorder in individuals at risk for psychosis
Kasia Hitczenko | Henry Cowan | Vijay Mittal | Matthew Goldrick

Thought disorder – linguistic disturbances including incoherence and derailment of topic – is seen in individuals both with and at risk for psychosis. Methods from computational linguistics have increasingly sought to quantify thought disorder to detect group differences between clinical populations and healthy controls. While previous work has been quite successful at these classification tasks, the lack of interpretability of the computational metrics has made it unclear whether they are in fact measuring thought disorder. In this paper, we dive into these measures to try to better understand what they reflect. While we find group differences between at-risk and healthy control populations, we also find that the measures mostly do not correlate with existing measures of thought disorder symptoms (what they are intended to measure), but rather correlate with surface properties of the speech (e.g., sentence length) and sociodemographic properties of the speaker (e.g., race). These results highlight the importance of considering interpretability and front and center as the field continues to grow. Ethical use of computational measures like those studied here – especially in the high-stakes context of clinical care – requires us to devote substantial attention to potential biases in our measures.

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Detecting Cognitive Distortions from Patient-Therapist Interactions
Sagarika Shreevastava | Peter Foltz

An important part of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is to recognize and restructure certain negative thinking patterns that are also known as cognitive distortions. The aim of this project is to detect these distortions using natural language processing. We compare and contrast different types of linguistic features as well as different classification algorithms and explore the limitations of applying these techniques on a small dataset. We find that pre-trained Sentence-BERT embeddings to train an SVM classifier yields the best results with an F1-score of 0.79. Lastly, we discuss how this work provides insights into the types of linguistic features that are inherent in cognitive distortions.

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Evaluating Automatic Speech Recognition Quality and Its Impact on Counselor Utterance Coding
Do June Min | Verónica Pérez-Rosas | Rada Mihalcea

Automatic speech recognition (ASR) is a crucial step in many natural language processing (NLP) applications, as often available data consists mainly of raw speech. Since the result of the ASR step is considered as a meaningful, informative input to later steps in the NLP pipeline, it is important to understand the behavior and failure mode of this step. In this work, we analyze the quality of ASR in the psychotherapy domain, using motivational interviewing conversations between therapists and clients. We conduct domain agnostic and domain-relevant evaluations using standard evaluation metrics and also identify domain-relevant keywords in the ASR output. Moreover, we empirically study the effect of mixing ASR and manual data during the training of a downstream NLP model, and also demonstrate how additional local context can help alleviate the error introduced by noisy ASR transcripts.

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Qualitative Analysis of Depression Models by Demographics
Carlos Aguirre | Mark Dredze

Models for identifying depression using social media text exhibit biases towards different gender and racial/ethnic groups. Factors like representation and balance of groups within the dataset are contributory factors, but difference in content and social media use may further explain these biases. We present an analysis of the content of social media posts from different demographic groups. Our analysis shows that there are content differences between depression and control subgroups across demographic groups, and that temporal topics and demographic-specific topics are correlated with downstream depression model error. We discuss the implications of our work on creating future datasets, as well as designing and training models for mental health.

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Safeguarding against spurious AI-based predictions: The case of automated verbal memory assessment
Chelsea Chandler | Peter Foltz | Alex Cohen | Terje Holmlund | Brita Elvevåg

A growing amount of psychiatric research incorporates machine learning and natural language processing methods, however findings have yet to be translated into actual clinical decision support systems. Many of these studies are based on relatively small datasets in homogeneous populations, which has the associated risk that the models may not perform adequately on new data in real clinical practice. The nature of serious mental illness is that it is hard to define, hard to capture, and requires frequent monitoring, which leads to imperfect data where attribute and class noise are common. With the goal of an effective AI-mediated clinical decision support system, there must be computational safeguards placed on the models used in order to avoid spurious predictions and thus allow humans to review data in the settings where models are unstable or bound not to generalize. This paper describes two approaches to implementing safeguards: (1) the determination of cases in which models are unstable by means of attribute and class based outlier detection and (2) finding the extent to which models show inductive bias. These safeguards are illustrated in the automated scoring of a story recall task via natural language processing methods. With the integration of human-in-the-loop machine learning in the clinical implementation process, incorporating safeguards such as these into the models will offer patients increased protection from spurious predictions.

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Towards the Development of Speech-Based Measures of Stress Response in Individuals
Archna Bhatia | Toshiya Miyatsu | Peter Pirolli

Psychological and physiological stress in the environment can induce a different stress response in different individuals. Given the causal relationship between stress, mental health, and psychopathologies, as well as its impact on individuals’ executive functioning and performance, identifying the extent of stress response in individuals can be useful for providing targeted support to those who are in need. In this paper, we identify and validate features in speech that can be used as indicators of stress response in individuals to develop speech-based measures of stress response. We evaluate effectiveness of two types of tasks used for collecting speech samples in developing stress response measures, namely Read Speech Task and Open-Ended Question Task. Participants completed these tasks, along with the verbal fluency task (an established measure of executive functioning) before and after clinically validated stress induction to see if the changes in the speech-based features are associated with the stress-induced decline in executive functioning. Further, we supplement our analyses with an extensive, external assessment of the individuals’ stress tolerance in the real life to validate the usefulness of the speech-based measures in predicting meaningful outcomes outside of the experimental setting.

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Towards Low-Resource Real-Time Assessment of Empathy in Counselling
Zixiu Wu | Rim Helaoui | Diego Reforgiato Recupero | Daniele Riboni

Gauging therapist empathy in counselling is an important component of understanding counselling quality. While session-level empathy assessment based on machine learning has been investigated extensively, it relies on relatively large amounts of well-annotated dialogue data, and real-time evaluation has been overlooked in the past. In this paper, we focus on the task of low-resource utterance-level binary empathy assessment. We train deep learning models on heuristically constructed empathy vs. non-empathy contrast in general conversations, and apply the models directly to therapeutic dialogues, assuming correlation between empathy manifested in those two domains. We show that such training yields poor performance in general, probe its causes, and examine the actual effect of learning from empathy contrast in general conversation.

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Towards Understanding the Role of Gender in Deploying Social Media-Based Mental Health Surveillance Models
Eli Sherman | Keith Harrigian | Carlos Aguirre | Mark Dredze

Spurred by advances in machine learning and natural language processing, developing social media-based mental health surveillance models has received substantial recent attention. For these models to be maximally useful, it is necessary to understand how they perform on various subgroups, especially those defined in terms of protected characteristics. In this paper we study the relationship between user demographics – focusing on gender – and depression. Considering a population of Reddit users with known genders and depression statuses, we analyze the degree to which depression predictions are subject to biases along gender lines using domain-informed classifiers. We then study our models’ parameters to gain qualitative insight into the differences in posting behavior across genders.

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Understanding Patterns of Anorexia Manifestations in Social Media Data with Deep Learning
Ana Sabina Uban | Berta Chulvi | Paolo Rosso

Eating disorders are a growing problem especially among young people, yet they have been under-studied in computational research compared to other mental health disorders such as depression. Computational methods have a great potential to aid with the automatic detection of mental health problems, but state-of-the-art machine learning methods based on neural networks are notoriously difficult to interpret, which is a crucial problem for applications in the mental health domain. We propose leveraging the power of deep learning models for automatically detecting signs of anorexia based on social media data, while at the same time focusing on interpreting their behavior. We train a hierarchical attention network to detect people with anorexia and use its internal encodings to discover different clusters of anorexia symptoms. We interpret the identified patterns from multiple perspectives, including emotion expression, psycho-linguistic features and personality traits, and we offer novel hypotheses to interpret our findings from a psycho-social perspective. Some interesting findings are patterns of word usage in some users with anorexia which show that they feel less as being part of a group compared to control cases, as well as that they have abandoned explanatory activity as a result of a greater feeling of helplessness and fear.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Workshop on Cognitive Modeling and Computational Linguistics

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Proceedings of the Workshop on Cognitive Modeling and Computational Linguistics
Emmanuele Chersoni | Nora Hollenstein | Cassandra Jacobs | Yohei Oseki | Laurent Prévot | Enrico Santus

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Non-Complementarity of Information in Word-Embedding and Brain Representations in Distinguishing between Concrete and Abstract Words
Kalyan Ramakrishnan | Fatma Deniz

Word concreteness and imageability have proven crucial in understanding how humans process and represent language in the brain. While word-embeddings do not explicitly incorporate the concreteness of words into their computations, they have been shown to accurately predict human judgments of concreteness and imageability. Inspired by the recent interest in using neural activity patterns to analyze distributed meaning representations, we first show that brain responses acquired while human subjects passively comprehend natural stories can significantly distinguish the concreteness levels of the words encountered. We then examine for the same task whether the additional perceptual information in the brain representations can complement the contextual information in the word-embeddings. However, the results of our predictive models and residual analyses indicate the contrary. We find that the relevant information in the brain representations is a subset of the relevant information in the contextualized word-embeddings, providing new insight into the existing state of natural language processing models.

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Human Sentence Processing: Recurrence or Attention?
Danny Merkx | Stefan L. Frank

Recurrent neural networks (RNNs) have long been an architecture of interest for computational models of human sentence processing. The recently introduced Transformer architecture outperforms RNNs on many natural language processing tasks but little is known about its ability to model human language processing. We compare Transformer- and RNN-based language models’ ability to account for measures of human reading effort. Our analysis shows Transformers to outperform RNNs in explaining self-paced reading times and neural activity during reading English sentences, challenging the widely held idea that human sentence processing involves recurrent and immediate processing and provides evidence for cue-based retrieval.

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Modeling Incremental Language Comprehension in the Brain with Combinatory Categorial Grammar
Miloš Stanojević | Shohini Bhattasali | Donald Dunagan | Luca Campanelli | Mark Steedman | Jonathan Brennan | John Hale

Hierarchical sentence structure plays a role in word-by-word human sentence comprehension, but it remains unclear how best to characterize this structure and unknown how exactly it would be recognized in a step-by-step process model. With a view towards sharpening this picture, we model the time course of hemodynamic activity within the brain during an extended episode of naturalistic language comprehension using Combinatory Categorial Grammar (CCG). CCG has well-defined incremental parsing algorithms, surface compositional semantics, and can explain long-range dependencies as well as complicated cases of coordination. We find that CCG-derived predictors improve a regression model of fMRI time course in six language-relevant brain regions, over and above predictors derived from context-free phrase structure. Adding a special Revealing operator to CCG parsing, one designed to handle right-adjunction, improves the fit in three of these regions. This evidence for CCG from neuroimaging bolsters the more general case for mildly context-sensitive grammars in the cognitive science of language.

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A Multinomial Processing Tree Model of RC Attachment
Pavel Logacev | Noyan Dokudan

In the field of sentence processing, speakers’ preferred interpretation of ambiguous sentences are often determined using a variant of a discrete choice task, in which participants are asked to indicate their preferred meaning of an ambiguous sentence. We discuss participants’ degree of attentiveness as a potential source of bias and variability in such tasks. We show that it may distort the estimates of the preference of a particular interpretation obtained in such experiments and may thus complicate the interpretation of the results as well as the comparison of the results of several experiments. We propose an analysis method based on multinomial processing tree models (Batchelder and Riefer, 1999) which can correct for this bias and allows for a separation of parameters of theoretical importance from nuisance parameters. We test two variants of the MPT-based model on experimental data from English and Turkish and demonstrate that our method can provide deeper insight into the processes underlying participants’ answering behavior and their interpretation preferences than an analysis based on raw percentages.

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That Looks Hard: Characterizing Linguistic Complexity in Humans and Language Models
Gabriele Sarti | Dominique Brunato | Felice Dell’Orletta

This paper investigates the relationship between two complementary perspectives in the human assessment of sentence complexity and how they are modeled in a neural language model (NLM). The first perspective takes into account multiple online behavioral metrics obtained from eye-tracking recordings. The second one concerns the offline perception of complexity measured by explicit human judgments. Using a broad spectrum of linguistic features modeling lexical, morpho-syntactic, and syntactic properties of sentences, we perform a comprehensive analysis of linguistic phenomena associated with the two complexity viewpoints and report similarities and differences. We then show the effectiveness of linguistic features when explicitly leveraged by a regression model for predicting sentence complexity and compare its results with the ones obtained by a fine-tuned neural language model. We finally probe the NLM’s linguistic competence before and after fine-tuning, highlighting how linguistic information encoded in representations changes when the model learns to predict complexity.

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Accounting for Agreement Phenomena in Sentence Comprehension with Transformer Language Models: Effects of Similarity-based Interference on Surprisal and Attention
Soo Hyun Ryu | Richard Lewis

We advance a novel explanation of similarity-based interference effects in subject-verb and reflexive pronoun agreement processing, grounded in surprisal values computed from a pretrained large-scale Transformer model, GPT-2. Specifically, we show that surprisal of the verb or reflexive pronoun predicts facilitatory interference effects in ungrammatical sentences, where a distractor noun that matches in number with the verb or pronouns leads to faster reading times, despite the distractor not participating in the agreement relation. We review the human empirical evidence for such effects, including recent meta-analyses and large-scale studies. We also show that attention patterns (indexed by entropy and other measures) in the Transformer show patterns of diffuse attention in the presence of similar distractors, consistent with cue-based retrieval models of parsing. But in contrast to these models, the attentional cues and memory representations are learned entirely from the simple self-supervised task of predicting the next word.

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CMCL 2021 Shared Task on Eye-Tracking Prediction
Nora Hollenstein | Emmanuele Chersoni | Cassandra L. Jacobs | Yohei Oseki | Laurent Prévot | Enrico Santus

Eye-tracking data from reading represent an important resource for both linguistics and natural language processing. The ability to accurately model gaze features is crucial to advance our understanding of language processing. This paper describes the Shared Task on Eye-Tracking Data Prediction, jointly organized with the eleventh edition of the Work- shop on Cognitive Modeling and Computational Linguistics (CMCL 2021). The goal of the task is to predict 5 different token- level eye-tracking metrics of the Zurich Cognitive Language Processing Corpus (ZuCo). Eye-tracking data were recorded during natural reading of English sentences. In total, we received submissions from 13 registered teams, whose systems include boosting algorithms with handcrafted features, neural models leveraging transformer language models, or hybrid approaches. The winning system used a range of linguistic and psychometric features in a gradient boosting framework.

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LangResearchLab_NC at CMCL2021 Shared Task: Predicting Gaze Behaviour Using Linguistic Features and Tree Regressors
Raksha Agarwal | Niladri Chatterjee

Analysis of gaze data behaviour has gained momentum in recent years for different NLP applications. The present paper aims at modelling gaze data behaviour of tokens in the context of a sentence. We have experimented with various Machine Learning Regression Algorithms on a feature space comprising the linguistic features of the target tokens for prediction of five Eye-Tracking features. CatBoost Regressor performed the best and achieved fourth position in terms of MAE based accuracy measurement for the ZuCo Dataset.

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TorontoCL at CMCL 2021 Shared Task: RoBERTa with Multi-Stage Fine-Tuning for Eye-Tracking Prediction
Bai Li | Frank Rudzicz

Eye movement data during reading is a useful source of information for understanding language comprehension processes. In this paper, we describe our submission to the CMCL 2021 shared task on predicting human reading patterns. Our model uses RoBERTa with a regression layer to predict 5 eye-tracking features. We train the model in two stages: we first fine-tune on the Provo corpus (another eye-tracking dataset), then fine-tune on the task data. We compare different Transformer models and apply ensembling methods to improve the performance. Our final submission achieves a MAE score of 3.929, ranking 3rd place out of 13 teams that participated in this shared task.

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LAST at CMCL 2021 Shared Task: Predicting Gaze Data During Reading with a Gradient Boosting Decision Tree Approach
Yves Bestgen

A LightGBM model fed with target word lexical characteristics and features obtained from word frequency lists, psychometric data and bigram association measures has been optimized for the 2021 CMCL Shared Task on Eye-Tracking Data Prediction. It obtained the best performance of all teams on two of the five eye-tracking measures to predict, allowing it to rank first on the official challenge criterion and to outperform all deep-learning based systems participating in the challenge.

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Team Ohio State at CMCL 2021 Shared Task: Fine-Tuned RoBERTa for Eye-Tracking Data Prediction
Byung-Doh Oh

This paper describes Team Ohio State’s approach to the CMCL 2021 Shared Task, the goal of which is to predict five eye-tracking features from naturalistic self-paced reading corpora. For this task, we fine-tune a pre-trained neural language model (RoBERTa; Liu et al., 2019) to predict each feature based on the contextualized representations. Moreover, motivated by previous eye-tracking studies, we include word length in characters and proportion of sentence processed as two additional input features. Our best model strongly outperforms the baseline and is also competitive with other systems submitted to the shared task. An ablation study shows that the word length feature contributes to making more accurate predictions, indicating the usefulness of features that are specific to the eye-tracking paradigm.

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PIHKers at CMCL 2021 Shared Task: Cosine Similarity and Surprisal to Predict Human Reading Patterns.
Lavinia Salicchi | Alessandro Lenci

Eye-tracking psycholinguistic studies have revealed that context-word semantic coherence and predictability influence language processing. In this paper we show our approach to predict eye-tracking features from the ZuCo dataset for the shared task of the Cognitive Modeling and Computational Linguistics (CMCL2021) workshop. Using both cosine similarity and surprisal within a regression model, we significantly improved the baseline Mean Absolute Error computed among five eye-tracking features.

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TALEP at CMCL 2021 Shared Task: Non Linear Combination of Low and High-Level Features for Predicting Eye-Tracking Data
Franck Dary | Alexis Nasr | Abdellah Fourtassi

In this paper we describe our contribution to the CMCL 2021 Shared Task, which consists in predicting 5 different eye tracking variables from English tokenized text. Our approach is based on a neural network that combines both raw textual features we extracted from the text and parser-based features that include linguistic predictions (e.g. part of speech) and complexity metrics (e.g., entropy of parsing). We found that both the features we considered as well as the architecture of the neural model that combined these features played a role in the overall performance. Our system achieved relatively high accuracy on the test data of the challenge and was ranked 2nd out of 13 competing teams and a total of 30 submissions.

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MTL782_IITD at CMCL 2021 Shared Task: Prediction of Eye-Tracking Features Using BERT Embeddings and Linguistic Features
Shivani Choudhary | Kushagri Tandon | Raksha Agarwal | Niladri Chatterjee

Reading and comprehension are quintessentially cognitive tasks. Eye movement acts as a surrogate to understand which part of a sentence is critical to the process of comprehension. The aim of the shared task is to predict five eye-tracking features for a given word of the input sentence. We experimented with several models based on LGBM (Light Gradient Boosting Machine) Regression, ANN (Artificial Neural Network), and CNN (Convolutional Neural Network), using BERT embeddings and some combination of linguistic features. Our submission using CNN achieved an average MAE of 4.0639 and ranked 7th in the shared task. The average MAE was further lowered to 3.994 in post-task evaluation.

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KonTra at CMCL 2021 Shared Task: Predicting Eye Movements by Combining BERT with Surface, Linguistic and Behavioral Information
Qi Yu | Aikaterini-Lida Kalouli | Diego Frassinelli

This paper describes the submission of the team KonTra to the CMCL 2021 Shared Task on eye-tracking prediction. Our system combines the embeddings extracted from a fine-tuned BERT model with surface, linguistic and behavioral features, resulting in an average mean absolute error of 4.22 across all 5 eye-tracking measures. We show that word length and features representing the expectedness of a word are consistently the strongest predictors across all 5 eye-tracking measures.

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CogNLP-Sheffield at CMCL 2021 Shared Task: Blending Cognitively Inspired Features with Transformer-based Language Models for Predicting Eye Tracking Patterns
Peter Vickers | Rosa Wainwright | Harish Tayyar Madabushi | Aline Villavicencio

The CogNLP-Sheffield submissions to the CMCL 2021 Shared Task examine the value of a variety of cognitively and linguistically inspired features for predicting eye tracking patterns, as both standalone model inputs and as supplements to contextual word embeddings (XLNet). Surprisingly, the smaller pre-trained model (XLNet-base) outperforms the larger (XLNet-large), and despite evidence that multi-word expressions (MWEs) provide cognitive processing advantages, MWE features provide little benefit to either model.

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Team ReadMe at CMCL 2021 Shared Task: Predicting Human Reading Patterns by Traditional Oculomotor Control Models and Machine Learning
Alisan Balkoca | Abdullah Algan | Cengiz Acarturk | Çağrı Çöltekin

This system description paper describes our participation in CMCL 2021 shared task on predicting human reading patterns. Our focus in this study is making use of well-known,traditional oculomotor control models and machine learning systems. We present experiments with a traditional oculomotor control model (the EZ Reader) and two machine learning models (a linear regression model and a re-current network model), as well as combining the two different models. In all experiments we test effects of features well-known in the literature for predicting reading patterns, such as frequency, word length and predictability. Our experiments support the earlier findings that such features are useful when combined. Furthermore, we show that although machine learning models perform better in comparison to traditional models, combination of both gives a consistent improvement for predicting multiple eye tracking variables during reading.

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Enhancing Cognitive Models of Emotions with Representation Learning
Yuting Guo | Jinho D. Choi

We present a novel deep learning-based framework to generate embedding representations of fine-grained emotions that can be used to computationally describe psychological models of emotions. Our framework integrates a contextualized embedding encoder with a multi-head probing model that enables to interpret dynamically learned representations optimized for an emotion classification task. Our model is evaluated on the Empathetic Dialogue dataset and shows the state-of-the-art result for classifying 32 emotions. Our layer analysis can derive an emotion graph to depict hierarchical relations among the emotions. Our emotion representations can be used to generate an emotion wheel directly comparable to the one from Plutchik’s model, and also augment the values of missing emotions in the PAD emotional state model.

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Production vs Perception: The Role of Individuality in Usage-Based Grammar Induction
Jonathan Dunn | Andrea Nini

This paper asks whether a distinction between production-based and perception-based grammar induction influences either (i) the growth curve of grammars and lexicons or (ii) the similarity between representations learned from independent sub-sets of a corpus. A production-based model is trained on the usage of a single individual, thus simulating the grammatical knowledge of a single speaker. A perception-based model is trained on an aggregation of many individuals, thus simulating grammatical generalizations learned from exposure to many different speakers. To ensure robustness, the experiments are replicated across two registers of written English, with four additional registers reserved as a control. A set of three computational experiments shows that production-based grammars are significantly different from perception-based grammars across all conditions, with a steeper growth curve that can be explained by substantial inter-individual grammatical differences.

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Clause Final Verb Prediction in Hindi: Evidence for Noisy Channel Model of Communication
Kartik Sharma | Niyati Bafna | Samar Husain

Verbal prediction has been shown to be critical during online comprehension of Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) languages. In this work we present three computational models to predict clause final verbs in Hindi given its prior arguments. The models differ in their use of prior context during the prediction process – the context is either noisy or noise-free. Model predictions are compared with the sentence completion data obtained from Hindi native speakers. Results show that models that assume noisy context outperform the noise-free model. In particular, a lossy context model that assumes prior context to be affected by predictability and recency captures the distribution of the predicted verb class and error sources best. The success of the predictability-recency lossy context model is consistent with the noisy channel hypothesis for sentence comprehension and supports the idea that the reconstruction of the context during prediction is driven by prior linguistic exposure. These results also shed light on the nature of the noise that affects the reconstruction process. Overall the results pose a challenge to the adaptability hypothesis that assumes use of noise-free preverbal context for robust verbal prediction.

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Dependency Locality and Neural Surprisal as Predictors of Processing Difficulty: Evidence from Reading Times
Neil Rathi

This paper compares two influential theories of processing difficulty: Gibson (2000)’s Dependency Locality Theory (DLT) and Hale (2001)’s Surprisal Theory. While prior work has aimed to compare DLT and Surprisal Theory (see Demberg and Keller, 2008), they have not yet been compared using more modern and powerful methods for estimating surprisal and DLT integration cost. I compare estimated surprisal values from two models, an RNN and a Transformer neural network, as well as DLT integration cost from a hand-parsed treebank, to reading times from the Dundee Corpus. Our results for integration cost corroborate those of Demberg and Keller (2008), finding that it is a negative predictor of reading times overall and a strong positive predictor for nouns, but contrast with their observations for surprisal, finding strong evidence for lexicalized surprisal as a predictor of reading times. Ultimately, I conclude that a broad-coverage model must integrate both theories in order to most accurately predict processing difficulty.

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Modeling Sentence Comprehension Deficits in Aphasia: A Computational Evaluation of the Direct-access Model of Retrieval
Paula Lissón | Dorothea Pregla | Dario Paape | Frank Burchert | Nicole Stadie | Shravan Vasishth

Several researchers have argued that sentence comprehension is mediated via a content-addressable retrieval mechanism that allows fast and direct access to memory items. Initially failed retrievals can result in backtracking, which leads to correct retrieval. We present an augmented version of the direct-access model that allows backtracking to fail. Based on self-paced listening data from individuals with aphasia, we compare the augmented model to the base model without backtracking failures. The augmented model shows quantitatively similar performance to the base model, but only the augmented model can account for slow incorrect responses. We argue that the modified direct-access model is theoretically better suited to fit data from impaired populations.

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Sentence Complexity in Context
Benedetta Iavarone | Dominique Brunato | Felice Dell’Orletta

We study the influence of context on how humans evaluate the complexity of a sentence in English. We collect a new dataset of sentences, where each sentence is rated for perceived complexity within different contextual windows. We carry out an in-depth analysis to detect which linguistic features correlate more with complexity judgments and with the degree of agreement among annotators. We train several regression models, using either explicit linguistic features or contextualized word embeddings, to predict the mean complexity values assigned to sentences in the different contextual windows, as well as their standard deviation. Results show that models leveraging explicit features capturing morphosyntactic and syntactic phenomena perform always better, especially when they have access to features extracted from all contextual sentences.

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Evaluating the Acquisition of Semantic Knowledge from Cross-situational Learning in Artificial Neural Networks
Mitja Nikolaus | Abdellah Fourtassi

When learning their native language, children acquire the meanings of words and sentences from highly ambiguous input without much explicit supervision. One possible learning mechanism is cross-situational learning, which has been successfully tested in laboratory experiments with children. Here we use Artificial Neural Networks to test if this mechanism scales up to more natural language and visual scenes using a large dataset of crowd-sourced images with corresponding descriptions. We evaluate learning using a series of tasks inspired by methods commonly used in laboratory studies of language acquisition. We show that the model acquires rich semantic knowledge both at the word- and sentence-level, mirroring the patterns and trajectory of learning in early childhood. Our work highlights the usefulness of low-level co-occurrence statistics across modalities in facilitating the early acquisition of higher-level semantic knowledge.

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Representation and Pre-Activation of Lexical-Semantic Knowledge in Neural Language Models
Steven Derby | Paul Miller | Barry Devereux

In this paper, we perform a systematic analysis of how closely the intermediate layers from LSTM and trans former language models correspond to human semantic knowledge. Furthermore, in order to make more meaningful comparisons with theories of human language comprehension in psycholinguistics, we focus on two key stages where the meaning of a particular target word may arise: immediately before the word’s presentation to the model (comparable to forward inferencing), and immediately after the word token has been input into the network. Our results indicate that the transformer models are better at capturing semantic knowledge relating to lexical concepts, both during word prediction and when retention is required.

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Relation Classification with Cognitive Attention Supervision
Erik McGuire | Noriko Tomuro

Many current language models such as BERT utilize attention mechanisms to transform sequence representations. We ask whether we can influence BERT’s attention with human reading patterns by using eye-tracking and brain imaging data. We fine-tune BERT for relation extraction with auxiliary attention supervision in which BERT’s attention weights are supervised by cognitive data. Through a variety of metrics we find that this attention supervision can be used to increase similarity between model attention distributions over sequences and the cognitive data without significantly affecting classification performance while making unique errors from the baseline. In particular, models with cognitive attention supervision more often correctly classified samples misclassified by the baseline.

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Graph-theoretic Properties of the Class of Phonological Neighbourhood Networks
Rory Turnbull

This paper concerns the structure of phonological neighbourhood networks, which are a graph-theoretic representation of the phonological lexicon. These networks represent each word as a node and links are placed between words which are phonological neighbours, usually defined as a string edit distance of one. Phonological neighbourhood networks have been used to study many aspects of the mental lexicon and psycholinguistic theories of speech production and perception. This paper offers preliminary graph-theoretic observations about phonological neighbourhood networks considered as a class. To aid this exploration, this paper introduces the concept of the hyperlexicon, the network consisting of all possible words for a given symbol set and their neighbourhood relations. The construction of the hyperlexicon is discussed, and basic properties are derived. This work is among the first to directly address the nature of phonological neighbourhood networks from an analytic perspective.

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Contributions of Propositional Content and Syntactic Category Information in Sentence Processing
Byung-Doh Oh | William Schuler

Expectation-based theories of sentence processing posit that processing difficulty is determined by predictability in context. While predictability quantified via surprisal has gained empirical support, this representation-agnostic measure leaves open the question of how to best approximate the human comprehender’s latent probability model. This work presents an incremental left-corner parser that incorporates information about both propositional content and syntactic categories into a single probability model. This parser can be trained to make parsing decisions conditioning on only one source of information, thus allowing a clean ablation of the relative contribution of propositional content and syntactic category information. Regression analyses show that surprisal estimates calculated from the full parser make a significant contribution to predicting self-paced reading times over those from the parser without syntactic category information, as well as a significant contribution to predicting eye-gaze durations over those from the parser without propositional content information. Taken together, these results suggest a role for propositional content and syntactic category information in incremental sentence processing.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Computational Approaches to Discourse

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Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Computational Approaches to Discourse
Chloé Braud | Christian Hardmeier | Junyi Jessy Li | Annie Louis | Michael Strube | Amir Zeldes

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“I’ll be there for you”: The One with Understanding Indirect Answers
Cathrine Damgaard | Paulina Toborek | Trine Eriksen | Barbara Plank

Indirect answers are replies to polar questions without the direct use of word cues such as ‘yes’ and ‘no’. Humans are very good at understanding indirect answers, such as ‘I gotta go home sometime’, when asked ‘You wanna crash on the couch?’. Understanding indirect answers is a challenging problem for dialogue systems. In this paper, we introduce a new English corpus to study the problem of understanding indirect answers. Instead of crowd-sourcing both polar questions and answers, we collect questions and indirect answers from transcripts of a prominent TV series and manually annotate them for answer type. The resulting dataset contains 5,930 question-answer pairs. We release both aggregated and raw human annotations. We present a set of experiments in which we evaluate Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) for this task, including a cross-dataset evaluation and experiments with learning from disagreements in annotation. Our results show that the task of interpreting indirect answers remains challenging, yet we obtain encouraging improvements when explicitly modeling human disagreement.

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Developing Conversational Data and Detection of Conversational Humor in Telugu
Vaishnavi Pamulapati | Radhika Mamidi

In the field of humor research, there has been a recent surge of interest in the sub-domain of Conversational Humor (CH). This study has two main objectives. (a) develop a conversational (humorous and non-humorous) dataset in Telugu. (b) detect CH in the compiled dataset. In this paper, the challenges faced while collecting the data and experiments carried out are elucidated. Transfer learning and non-transfer learning techniques are implemented by utilizing pre-trained models such as FastText word embeddings, BERT language models and Text GCN, which learns the word and document embeddings simultaneously of the corpus given. State-of-the-art results are observed with a 99.3% accuracy and a 98.5% f1 score achieved by BERT.

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Investigating non lexical markers of the language of schizophrenia in spontaneous conversations
Chuyuan Li | Maxime Amblard | Chloé Braud | Caroline Demily | Nicolas Franck | Michel Musiol

We investigate linguistic markers associated with schizophrenia in clinical conversations by detecting predictive features among French-speaking patients. Dealing with human-human dialogues makes for a realistic situation, but it calls for strategies to represent the context and face data sparsity. We compare different approaches for data representation – from individual speech turns to entire conversations –, and data modeling, using lexical, morphological, syntactic, and discourse features, dimensions presumed to be tightly connected to the language of schizophrenia. Previous English models were mostly lexical and reached high performance, here replicated (93.7% acc.). However, our analysis reveals that these models are heavily biased, which probably concerns most datasets on this task. Our new delexicalized models are more general and robust, with the best accuracy score at 77.9%.

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Discourse-Driven Integrated Dialogue Development Environment for Open-Domain Dialogue Systems
Denis Kuznetsov | Dmitry Evseev | Lidia Ostyakova | Oleg Serikov | Daniel Kornev | Mikhail Burtsev

Development environments for spoken dialogue systems are popular today because they enable rapid creation of the dialogue systems in times when usage of the voice AI Assistants is constantly growing. We describe a graphical Discourse-Driven Integrated Dialogue Development Environment (DD-IDDE) for spoken open-domain dialogue systems. The DD-IDDE allows dialogue architects to interactively define dialogue flows of their skills/chatbots with the aid of the discourse-driven recommendation system, enhance these flows in the Python-based DSL, deploy, and then further improve based on the skills/chatbots usage statistics. We show how these skills/chatbots can be specified through a graphical user interface within the VS Code Extension, and then run on top of the Dialog Flow Framework (DFF). An earlier version of this framework has been adopted in one of the Alexa Prize 4 socialbots while the updated version was specifically designed to power the described DD-IDDE solution.

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Coreference Chains Categorization by Sequence Clustering
Silvia Federzoni | Lydia-Mai Ho-Dac | Cécile Fabre

The diversity of coreference chains is usually tackled by means of global features (length, types and number of referring expressions, distance between them, etc.). In this paper, we propose a novel approach that provides a description of their composition in terms of sequences of expressions. To this end, we apply sequence analysis techniques to bring out the various strategies for introducing a referent and keeping it active throughout discourse. We discuss a first application of this method to a French written corpus annotated with coreference chains. We obtain clusters that are linguistically coherent and interpretable in terms of reference strategies and we demonstrate the influence of text genre and semantic type of the referent on chain composition.

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Resolving Implicit References in Instructional Texts
Talita Anthonio | Michael Roth

The usage of (co-)referring expressions in discourse contributes to the coherence of a text. However, text comprehension can be difficult when referring expressions are non-verbalized and have to be resolved in the discourse context. In this paper, we propose a novel dataset of such implicit references, which we automatically derive from insertions of references in collaboratively edited how-to guides. Our dataset consists of 6,014 instances, making it one of the largest datasets of implicit references and a useful starting point to investigate misunderstandings caused by underspecified language. We test different methods for resolving implicit references in our dataset based on the Generative Pre-trained Transformer model (GPT) and compare them to heuristic baselines. Our experiments indicate that GPT can accurately resolve the majority of implicit references in our data. Finally, we investigate remaining errors and examine human preferences regarding different resolutions of an implicit reference given the discourse context.

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A practical perspective on connective generation
Frances Yung | Merel Scholman | Vera Demberg

In data-driven natural language generation, we typically know what relation should be expressed and need to select a connective to lexicalize it. In the current contribution, we analyse whether a sophisticated connective generation module is necessary to select a connective, or whether this can be solved with simple methods (such as random choice between connectives that are known to express a given relation, or usage of a generic language model). Comparing these methods to the distributions of connective choices from a human connective insertion task, we find mixed results: for some relations, it is acceptable to lexicalize them using any of the connectives that mark this relation. However, for other relations (temporals, concessives) either a more detailed relation distinction needs to be introduced, or a more sophisticated connective choice module would be necessary.

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Semi-automatic discourse annotation in a low-resource language: Developing a connective lexicon for Nigerian Pidgin
Marian Marchal | Merel Scholman | Vera Demberg

Cross-linguistic research on discourse structure and coherence marking requires discourse-annotated corpora and connective lexicons in a large number of languages. However, the availability of such resources is limited, especially for languages for which linguistic resources are scarce in general, such as Nigerian Pidgin. In this study, we demonstrate how a semi-automatic approach can be used to source connectives and their relation senses and develop a discourse-annotated corpus in a low-resource language. Connectives and their relation senses were extracted from a parallel corpus combining automatic (PDTB end-to-end parser) and manual annotations. This resulted in Naija-Lex, a lexicon of discourse connectives in Nigerian Pidgin with English translations. The lexicon shows that the majority of Nigerian Pidgin connectives are borrowed from its English lexifier, but that there are also some connectives that are unique to Nigerian Pidgin.

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Comparison of methods for explicit discourse connective identification across various domains
Merel Scholman | Tianai Dong | Frances Yung | Vera Demberg

Existing parse methods use varying approaches to identify explicit discourse connectives, but their performance has not been consistently evaluated in comparison to each other, nor have they been evaluated consistently on text other than newspaper articles. We here assess the performance on explicit connective identification of three parse methods (PDTB e2e, Lin et al., 2014; the winner of CONLL2015, Wang et al., 2015; and DisSent, Nie et al., 2019), along with a simple heuristic. We also examine how well these systems generalize to different datasets, namely written newspaper text (PDTB), written scientific text (BioDRB), prepared spoken text (TED-MDB) and spontaneous spoken text (Disco-SPICE). The results show that the e2e parser outperforms the other parse methods in all datasets. However, performance drops significantly from the PDTB to all other datasets. We provide a more fine-grained analysis of domain differences and connectives that prove difficult to parse, in order to highlight the areas where gains can be made.

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Revisiting Shallow Discourse Parsing in the PDTB-3: Handling Intra-sentential Implicits
Zheng Zhao | Bonnie Webber

In the PDTB-3, several thousand implicit discourse relations were newly annotated within individual sentences, adding to the over 15,000 implicit relations annotated across adjacent sentences in the PDTB-2. Given that the position of the arguments to these intra-sentential implicits is no longer as well-defined as with inter-sentential implicits, a discourse parser must identify both their location and their sense. That is the focus of the current work. The paper provides a comprehensive analysis of our results, showcasing model performance under different scenarios, pointing out limitations and noting future directions.

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Improving Multi-Party Dialogue Discourse Parsing via Domain Integration
Zhengyuan Liu | Nancy Chen

While multi-party conversations are often less structured than monologues and documents, they are implicitly organized by semantic level correlations across the interactive turns, and dialogue discourse analysis can be applied to predict the dependency structure and relations between the elementary discourse units, and provide feature-rich structural information for downstream tasks. However, the existing corpora with dialogue discourse annotation are collected from specific domains with limited sample sizes, rendering the performance of data-driven approaches poor on incoming dialogues without any domain adaptation. In this paper, we first introduce a Transformer-based parser, and assess its cross-domain performance. We next adopt three methods to gain domain integration from both data and language modeling perspectives to improve the generalization capability. Empirical results show that the neural parser can benefit from our proposed methods, and performs better on cross-domain dialogue samples.

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discopy: A Neural System for Shallow Discourse Parsing
René Knaebel

This paper demonstrates discopy, a novel framework that makes it easy to design components for end-to-end shallow discourse parsing. For the purpose of demonstration, we implement recent neural approaches and integrate contextualized word embeddings to predict explicit and non-explicit discourse relations. Our proposed neural feature-free system performs competitively to systems presented at the latest Shared Task on Shallow Discourse Parsing. Finally, a web front end is shown that simplifies the inspection of annotated documents. The source code, documentation, and pretrained models are publicly accessible.

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Tracing variation in discourse connectives in translation and interpreting through neural semantic spaces
Ekaterina Lapshinova-Koltunski | Heike Przybyl | Yuri Bizzoni

In the present paper, we explore lexical contexts of discourse markers in translation and interpreting on the basis of word embeddings. Our special interest is on contextual variation of the same discourse markers in (written) translation vs. (simultaneous) interpreting. To explore this variation at the lexical level, we use a data-driven approach: we compare bilingual neural word embeddings trained on source-to-translation and source-to-interpreting aligned corpora. Our results show more variation of semantically related items in translation spaces vs. interpreting ones and a more consistent use of fewer connectives in interpreting. We also observe different trends with regard to the discourse relation types.

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Capturing document context inside sentence-level neural machine translation models with self-training
Elman Mansimov | Gábor Melis | Lei Yu

Neural machine translation (NMT) has arguably achieved human level parity when trained and evaluated at the sentence-level. Document-level neural machine translation has received less attention and lags behind its sentence-level counterpart. The majority of the proposed document-level approaches investigate ways of conditioning the model on several source or target sentences to capture document context. These approaches require training a specialized NMT model from scratch on parallel document-level corpora. We propose an approach that doesn’t require training a specialized model on parallel document-level corpora and is applied to a trained sentence-level NMT model at decoding time. We process the document from left to right multiple times and self-train the sentence-level model on pairs of source sentences and generated translations. Our approach reinforces the choices made by the model, thus making it more likely that the same choices will be made in other sentences in the document. We evaluate our approach on three document-level datasets: NIST Chinese-English, WMT19 Chinese-English and OpenSubtitles English-Russian. We demonstrate that our approach has higher BLEU score and higher human preference than the baseline. Qualitative analysis of our approach shows that choices made by model are consistent across the document.

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DMRST: A Joint Framework for Document-Level Multilingual RST Discourse Segmentation and Parsing
Zhengyuan Liu | Ke Shi | Nancy Chen

Text discourse parsing weighs importantly in understanding information flow and argumentative structure in natural language, making it beneficial for downstream tasks. While previous work significantly improves the performance of RST discourse parsing, they are not readily applicable to practical use cases: (1) EDU segmentation is not integrated into most existing tree parsing frameworks, thus it is not straightforward to apply such models on newly-coming data. (2) Most parsers cannot be used in multilingual scenarios, because they are developed only in English. (3) Parsers trained from single-domain treebanks do not generalize well on out-of-domain inputs. In this work, we propose a document-level multilingual RST discourse parsing framework, which conducts EDU segmentation and discourse tree parsing jointly. Moreover, we propose a cross-translation augmentation strategy to enable the framework to support multilingual parsing and improve its domain generality. Experimental results show that our model achieves state-of-the-art performance on document-level multilingual RST parsing in all sub-tasks.

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Visualizing Cross‐Lingual Discourse Relations in Multilingual TED Corpora
Zae Myung Kim | Vassilina Nikoulina | Dongyeop Kang | Didier Schwab | Laurent Besacier

This paper presents an interactive data dashboard that provides users with an overview of the preservation of discourse relations among 28 language pairs. We display a graph network depicting the cross-lingual discourse relations between a pair of languages for multilingual TED talks and provide a search function to look for sentences with specific keywords or relation types, facilitating ease of analysis on the cross-lingual discourse relations.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the CODI-CRAC 2021 Shared Task on Anaphora, Bridging, and Discourse Deixis in Dialogue

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Proceedings of the CODI-CRAC 2021 Shared Task on Anaphora, Bridging, and Discourse Deixis in Dialogue
Sopan Khosla | Ramesh Manuvinakurike | Vincent Ng | Massimo Poesio | Michael Strube | Carolyn Rosé

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The CODI-CRAC 2021 Shared Task on Anaphora, Bridging, and Discourse Deixis in Dialogue
Sopan Khosla | Juntao Yu | Ramesh Manuvinakurike | Vincent Ng | Massimo Poesio | Michael Strube | Carolyn Rosé

In this paper, we provide an overview of the CODI-CRAC 2021 Shared-Task: Anaphora Resolution in Dialogue. The shared task focuses on detecting anaphoric relations in different genres of conversations. Using five conversational datasets, four of which have been newly annotated with a wide range of anaphoric relations: identity, bridging references and discourse deixis, we defined multiple subtasks focusing individually on these key relations. We discuss the evaluation scripts used to assess the system performance on these subtasks, and provide a brief summary of the participating systems and the results obtained across ?? runs from 5 teams, with most submissions achieving significantly better results than our baseline methods.

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Neural Anaphora Resolution in Dialogue
Hideo Kobayashi | Shengjie Li | Vincent Ng

We describe the systems that we developed for the three tracks of the CODI-CRAC 2021 shared task, namely entity coreference resolution, bridging resolution, and discourse deixis resolution. Our team ranked second for entity coreference resolution, first for bridging resolution, and first for discourse deixis resolution.

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Anaphora Resolution in Dialogue: Description of the DFKI-TalkingRobots System for the CODI-CRAC 2021 Shared-Task
Tatiana Anikina | Cennet Oguz | Natalia Skachkova | Siyu Tao | Sharmila Upadhyaya | Ivana Kruijff-Korbayova

We describe the system developed by the DFKI-TalkingRobots Team for the CODI-CRAC 2021 Shared-Task on anaphora resolution in dialogue. Our system consists of three subsystems: (1) the Workspace Coreference System (WCS) incrementally clusters mentions using semantic similarity based on embeddings combined with lexical feature heuristics; (2) the Mention-to-Mention (M2M) coreference resolution system pairs same entity mentions; (3) the Discourse Deixis Resolution (DDR) system employs a Siamese Network to detect discourse anaphor-antecedent pairs. WCS achieved F1-score of 55.6% averaged across the evaluation test sets, M2M achieved 57.2% and DDR achieved 21.5%.

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The Pipeline Model for Resolution of Anaphoric Reference and Resolution of Entity Reference
Hongjin Kim | Damrin Kim | Harksoo Kim

The objective of anaphora resolution in dialogue shared-task is to go above and beyond the simple cases of coreference resolution in written text on which NLP has mostly focused so far, which arguably overestimate the performance of current SOTA models. The anaphora resolution in dialogue shared-task consists of three subtasks; subtask1, resolution of anaphoric identity and non-referring expression identification, subtask2, resolution of bridging references, and subtask3, resolution of discourse deixis/abstract anaphora. In this paper, we propose the pipelined model (i.e., a resolution of anaphoric identity and a resolution of bridging references) for the subtask1 and the subtask2. In the subtask1, our model detects mention via the parentheses prediction. Then, we yield mention representation using the token representation constituting the mention. Mention representation is fed to the coreference resolution model for clustering. In the subtask2, our model resolves bridging references via the MRC framework. We construct query for each entity as “What is related of ENTITY?”. The input of our model is query and documents(i.e., all utterances of dialogue). Then, our model predicts entity span that is answer for query.

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An End-to-End Approach for Full Bridging Resolution
Joseph Renner | Priyansh Trivedi | Gaurav Maheshwari | Rémi Gilleron | Pascal Denis

In this article, we describe our submission to the CODI-CRAC 2021 Shared Task on Anaphora Resolution in Dialogues – Track BR (Gold). We demonstrate the performance of an end-to-end transformer-based higher-order coreference model finetuned for the task of full bridging. We find that while our approach is not effective at modeling the complexities of the task, it performs well on bridging resolution, suggesting a need for investigations into a robust anaphor identification model for future improvements.

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Adapted End-to-End Coreference Resolution System for Anaphoric Identities in Dialogues
Liyan Xu | Jinho D. Choi

We present an effective system adapted from the end-to-end neural coreference resolution model, targeting on the task of anaphora resolution in dialogues. Three aspects are specifically addressed in our approach, including the support of singletons, encoding speakers and turns throughout dialogue interactions, and knowledge transfer utilizing existing resources. Despite the simplicity of our adaptation strategies, they are shown to bring significant impact to the final performance, with up to 27 F1 improvement over the baseline. Our final system ranks the 1st place on the leaderboard of the anaphora resolution track in the CRAC 2021 shared task, and achieves the best evaluation results on all four datasets.

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Anaphora Resolution in Dialogue: Cross-Team Analysis of the DFKI-TalkingRobots Team Submissions for the CODI-CRAC 2021 Shared-Task
Natalia Skachkova | Cennet Oguz | Tatiana Anikina | Siyu Tao | Sharmila Upadhyaya | Ivana Kruijff-Korbayova

We compare our team’s systems to others submitted for the CODI-CRAC 2021 Shared-Task on anaphora resolution in dialogue. We analyse the architectures and performance, report some problematic cases in gold annotations, and suggest possible improvements of the systems, their evaluation, data annotation, and the organization of the shared task.

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The CODI-CRAC 2021 Shared Task on Anaphora, Bridging, and Discourse Deixis Resolution in Dialogue: A Cross-Team Analysis
Shengjie Li | Hideo Kobayashi | Vincent Ng

The CODI-CRAC 2021 shared task is the first shared task that focuses exclusively on anaphora resolution in dialogue and provides three tracks, namely entity coreference resolution, bridging resolution, and discourse deixis resolution. We perform a cross-task analysis of the systems that participated in the shared task in each of these tracks.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 25th Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning

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Proceedings of the 25th Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning
Arianna Bisazza | Omri Abend

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“It’s our fault!”: Insights Into Users’ Understanding and Interaction With an Explanatory Collaborative Dialog System
Katharina Weitz | Lindsey Vanderlyn | Ngoc Thang Vu | Elisabeth André

Human-AI collaboration, a long standing goal in AI, refers to a partnership where a human and artificial intelligence work together towards a shared goal. Collaborative dialog allows human-AI teams to communicate and leverage strengths from both partners. To design collaborative dialog systems, it is important to understand what mental models users form about their AI-dialog partners, however, how users perceive these systems is not fully understood. In this study, we designed a novel, collaborative, communication-based puzzle game and explanatory dialog system. We created a public corpus from 117 conversations and post-surveys and used this to analyze what mental models users formed. Key takeaways include: Even when users were not engaged in the game, they perceived the AI-dialog partner as intelligent and likeable, implying they saw it as a partner separate from the game. This was further supported by users often overestimating the system’s abilities and projecting human-like attributes which led to miscommunications. We conclude that creating shared mental models between users and AI systems is important to achieving successful dialogs. We propose that our insights on mental models and miscommunication, the game, and our corpus provide useful tools for designing collaborative dialog systems.

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Dependency Induction Through the Lens of Visual Perception
Ruisi Su | Shruti Rijhwani | Hao Zhu | Junxian He | Xinyu Wang | Yonatan Bisk | Graham Neubig

Most previous work on grammar induction focuses on learning phrasal or dependency structure purely from text. However, because the signal provided by text alone is limited, recently introduced visually grounded syntax models make use of multimodal information leading to improved performance in constituency grammar induction. However, as compared to dependency grammars, constituency grammars do not provide a straightforward way to incorporate visual information without enforcing language-specific heuristics. In this paper, we propose an unsupervised grammar induction model that leverages word concreteness and a structural vision-based heuristic to jointly learn constituency-structure and dependency-structure grammars. Our experiments find that concreteness is a strong indicator for learning dependency grammars, improving the direct attachment score (DAS) by over 50% as compared to state-of-the-art models trained on pure text. Next, we propose an extension of our model that leverages both word concreteness and visual semantic role labels in constituency and dependency parsing. Our experiments show that the proposed extension outperforms the current state-of-the-art visually grounded models in constituency parsing even with a smaller grammar size.

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VQA-MHUG: A Gaze Dataset to Study Multimodal Neural Attention in Visual Question Answering
Ekta Sood | Fabian Kögel | Florian Strohm | Prajit Dhar | Andreas Bulling

We present VQA-MHUG – a novel 49-participant dataset of multimodal human gaze on both images and questions during visual question answering (VQA) collected using a high-speed eye tracker. We use our dataset to analyze the similarity between human and neural attentive strategies learned by five state-of-the-art VQA models: Modular Co-Attention Network (MCAN) with either grid or region features, Pythia, Bilinear Attention Network (BAN), and the Multimodal Factorized Bilinear Pooling Network (MFB). While prior work has focused on studying the image modality, our analyses show – for the first time – that for all models, higher correlation with human attention on text is a significant predictor of VQA performance. This finding points at a potential for improving VQA performance and, at the same time, calls for further research on neural text attention mechanisms and their integration into architectures for vision and language tasks, including but potentially also beyond VQA.

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“It seemed like an annoying woman”: On the Perception and Ethical Considerations of Affective Language in Text-Based Conversational Agents
Lindsey Vanderlyn | Gianna Weber | Michael Neumann | Dirk Väth | Sarina Meyer | Ngoc Thang Vu

Previous research has found that task-oriented conversational agents are perceived more positively by users when they provide information in an empathetic manner compared to a plain, emotionless information exchange. However, users’ perception and ethical considerations related to a dialog systems’ response language style have received comparatively little attention in the field of human-computer interaction. To bridge this gap, we explored these ethical implications through a scenario-based user study. 127 participants interacted with one of three variants of an affective, task-oriented conversational agent, each variant providing responses in a different language style. After the interaction, participants filled out a survey about their feelings during the experiment and their perception of various aspects of the chatbot. Based on statistical and qualitative analysis of the responses, we found language style played an important role in how human-like participants perceived a dialog agent as well as how likable. Language style also had a direct effect on how users perceived the use of personal pronouns ‘I’ and ‘You’ and how they projected gender onto the chatbot. Finally, we identify and discuss ethical implications. In particular we focus on what factors/stereotypes influenced participants’ impressions of gender, and what trade-offs a more human-like chatbot brings.

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On Language Models for Creoles
Heather Lent | Emanuele Bugliarello | Miryam de Lhoneux | Chen Qiu | Anders Søgaard

Creole languages such as Nigerian Pidgin English and Haitian Creole are under-resourced and largely ignored in the NLP literature. Creoles typically result from the fusion of a foreign language with multiple local languages, and what grammatical and lexical features are transferred to the creole is a complex process. While creoles are generally stable, the prominence of some features may be much stronger with certain demographics or in some linguistic situations. This paper makes several contributions: We collect existing corpora and release models for Haitian Creole, Nigerian Pidgin English, and Singaporean Colloquial English. We evaluate these models on intrinsic and extrinsic tasks. Motivated by the above literature, we compare standard language models with distributionally robust ones and find that, somewhat surprisingly, the standard language models are superior to the distributionally robust ones. We investigate whether this is an effect of over-parameterization or relative distributional stability, and find that the difference persists in the absence of over-parameterization, and that drift is limited, confirming the relative stability of creole languages.

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Do pretrained transformers infer telicity like humans?
Yiyun Zhao | Jian Gang Ngui | Lucy Hall Hartley | Steven Bethard

Pretrained transformer-based language models achieve state-of-the-art performance in many NLP tasks, but it is an open question whether the knowledge acquired by the models during pretraining resembles the linguistic knowledge of humans. We present both humans and pretrained transformers with descriptions of events, and measure their preference for telic interpretations (the event has a natural endpoint) or atelic interpretations (the event does not have a natural endpoint). To measure these preferences and determine what factors influence them, we design an English test and a novel-word test that include a variety of linguistic cues (noun phrase quantity, resultative structure, contextual information, temporal units) that bias toward certain interpretations. We find that humans’ choice of telicity interpretation is reliably influenced by theoretically-motivated cues, transformer models (BERT and RoBERTa) are influenced by some (though not all) of the cues, and transformer models often rely more heavily on temporal units than humans do.

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The Low-Dimensional Linear Geometry of Contextualized Word Representations
Evan Hernandez | Jacob Andreas

Black-box probing models can reliably extract linguistic features like tense, number, and syntactic role from pretrained word representations. However, the manner in which these features are encoded in representations remains poorly understood. We present a systematic study of the linear geometry of contextualized word representations in ELMO and BERT. We show that a variety of linguistic features (including structured dependency relationships) are encoded in low-dimensional subspaces. We then refine this geometric picture, showing that there are hierarchical relations between the subspaces encoding general linguistic categories and more specific ones, and that low-dimensional feature encodings are distributed rather than aligned to individual neurons. Finally, we demonstrate that these linear subspaces are causally related to model behavior, and can be used to perform fine-grained manipulation of BERT’s output distribution.

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Generalising to German Plural Noun Classes, from the Perspective of a Recurrent Neural Network
Verna Dankers | Anna Langedijk | Kate McCurdy | Adina Williams | Dieuwke Hupkes

Inflectional morphology has since long been a useful testing ground for broader questions about generalisation in language and the viability of neural network models as cognitive models of language. Here, in line with that tradition, we explore how recurrent neural networks acquire the complex German plural system and reflect upon how their strategy compares to human generalisation and rule-based models of this system. We perform analyses including behavioural experiments, diagnostic classification, representation analysis and causal interventions, suggesting that the models rely on features that are also key predictors in rule-based models of German plurals. However, the models also display shortcut learning, which is crucial to overcome in search of more cognitively plausible generalisation behaviour.

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Can Language Models Encode Perceptual Structure Without Grounding? A Case Study in Color
Mostafa Abdou | Artur Kulmizev | Daniel Hershcovich | Stella Frank | Ellie Pavlick | Anders Søgaard

Pretrained language models have been shown to encode relational information, such as the relations between entities or concepts in knowledge-bases — (Paris, Capital, France). However, simple relations of this type can often be recovered heuristically and the extent to which models implicitly reflect topological structure that is grounded in world, such as perceptual structure, is unknown. To explore this question, we conduct a thorough case study on color. Namely, we employ a dataset of monolexemic color terms and color chips represented in CIELAB, a color space with a perceptually meaningful distance metric. Using two methods of evaluating the structural alignment of colors in this space with text-derived color term representations, we find significant correspondence. Analyzing the differences in alignment across the color spectrum, we find that warmer colors are, on average, better aligned to the perceptual color space than cooler ones, suggesting an intriguing connection to findings from recent work on efficient communication in color naming. Further analysis suggests that differences in alignment are, in part, mediated by collocationality and differences in syntactic usage, posing questions as to the relationship between color perception and usage and context.

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Empathetic Dialog Generation with Fine-Grained Intents
Yubo Xie | Pearl Pu

Empathetic dialog generation aims at generating coherent responses following previous dialog turns and, more importantly, showing a sense of caring and a desire to help. Existing models either rely on pre-defined emotion labels to guide the response generation, or use deterministic rules to decide the emotion of the response. With the advent of advanced language models, it is possible to learn subtle interactions directly from the dataset, providing that the emotion categories offer sufficient nuances and other non-emotional but emotional regulating intents are included. In this paper, we describe how to incorporate a taxonomy of 32 emotion categories and 8 additional emotion regulating intents to succeed the task of empathetic response generation. To facilitate the training, we also curated a large-scale emotional dialog dataset from movie subtitles. Through a carefully designed crowdsourcing experiment, we evaluated and demonstrated how our model produces more empathetic dialogs compared with its baselines.

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Enriching Language Models with Visually-grounded Word Vectors and the Lancaster Sensorimotor Norms
Casey Kennington

Language models are trained only on text despite the fact that humans learn their first language in a highly interactive and multimodal environment where the first set of learned words are largely concrete, denoting physical entities and embodied states. To enrich language models with some of this missing experience, we leverage two sources of information: (1) the Lancaster Sensorimotor norms, which provide ratings (means and standard deviations) for over 40,000 English words along several dimensions of embodiment, and which capture the extent to which something is experienced across 11 different sensory modalities, and (2) vectors from coefficients of binary classifiers trained on images for the BERT vocabulary. We pre-trained the ELECTRA model and fine-tuned the RoBERTa model with these two sources of information then evaluate using the established GLUE benchmark and the Visual Dialog benchmark. We find that enriching language models with the Lancaster norms and image vectors improves results in both tasks, with some implications for robust language models that capture holistic linguistic meaning in a language learning context.

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Learning Zero-Shot Multifaceted Visually Grounded Word Embeddings via Multi-Task Training
Hassan Shahmohammadi | Hendrik P. A. Lensch | R. Harald Baayen

Language grounding aims at linking the symbolic representation of language (e.g., words) into the rich perceptual knowledge of the outside world. The general approach is to embed both textual and visual information into a common space -the grounded space- confined by an explicit relationship. We argue that since concrete and abstract words are processed differently in the brain, such approaches sacrifice the abstract knowledge obtained from textual statistics in the process of acquiring perceptual information. The focus of this paper is to solve this issue by implicitly grounding the word embeddings. Rather than learning two mappings into a joint space, our approach integrates modalities by implicit alignment. This is achieved by learning a reversible mapping between the textual and the grounded space by means of multi-task training. Intrinsic and extrinsic evaluations show that our way of visual grounding is highly beneficial for both abstract and concrete words. Our embeddings are correlated with human judgments and outperform previous works using pretrained word embeddings on a wide range of benchmarks. Our grounded embeddings are publicly available here.

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Does language help generalization in vision models?
Benjamin Devillers | Bhavin Choksi | Romain Bielawski | Rufin VanRullen

Vision models trained on multimodal datasets can benefit from the wide availability of large image-caption datasets. A recent model (CLIP) was found to generalize well in zero-shot and transfer learning settings. This could imply that linguistic or “semantic grounding” confers additional generalization abilities to the visual feature space. Here, we systematically evaluate various multimodal architectures and vision-only models in terms of unsupervised clustering, few-shot learning, transfer learning and adversarial robustness. In each setting, multimodal training produced no additional generalization capability compared to standard supervised visual training. We conclude that work is still required for semantic grounding to help improve vision models.

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Understanding Guided Image Captioning Performance across Domains
Edwin G. Ng | Bo Pang | Piyush Sharma | Radu Soricut

Image captioning models generally lack the capability to take into account user interest, and usually default to global descriptions that try to balance readability, informativeness, and information overload. We present a Transformer-based model with the ability to produce captions focused on specific objects, concepts or actions in an image by providing them as guiding text to the model. Further, we evaluate the quality of these guided captions when trained on Conceptual Captions which contain 3.3M image-level captions compared to Visual Genome which contain 3.6M object-level captions. Counter-intuitively, we find that guided captions produced by the model trained on Conceptual Captions generalize better on out-of-domain data. Our human-evaluation results indicate that attempting in-the-wild guided image captioning requires access to large, unrestricted-domain training datasets, and that increased style diversity (even without increasing the number of unique tokens) is a key factor for improved performance.

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Counterfactual Interventions Reveal the Causal Effect of Relative Clause Representations on Agreement Prediction
Shauli Ravfogel | Grusha Prasad | Tal Linzen | Yoav Goldberg

When language models process syntactically complex sentences, do they use their representations of syntax in a manner that is consistent with the grammar of the language? We propose AlterRep, an intervention-based method to address this question. For any linguistic feature of a given sentence, AlterRep generates counterfactual representations by altering how the feature is encoded, while leaving in- tact all other aspects of the original representation. By measuring the change in a model’s word prediction behavior when these counterfactual representations are substituted for the original ones, we can draw conclusions about the causal effect of the linguistic feature in question on the model’s behavior. We apply this method to study how BERT models of different sizes process relative clauses (RCs). We find that BERT variants use RC boundary information during word prediction in a manner that is consistent with the rules of English grammar; this RC boundary information generalizes to a considerable extent across different RC types, suggesting that BERT represents RCs as an abstract linguistic category.

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Who’s on First?: Probing the Learning and Representation Capabilities of Language Models on Deterministic Closed Domains
David Demeter | Doug Downey

The capabilities of today’s natural language processing systems are typically evaluated using large datasets of curated questions and answers. While these are critical benchmarks of progress, they also suffer from weakness due to artificial distributions and incomplete knowledge. Artifacts arising from artificial distributions can overstate language model performance, while incomplete knowledge limits fine-grained analysis. In this work, we introduce a complementary benchmarking approach based on SimPlified Language Activity Traces (SPLAT). SPLATs are corpora of language encodings of activity in some closed domain (we study traces from chess and baseball games in this work). SPLAT datasets use naturally-arising distributions, allow the generation of question-answer pairs at scale, and afford complete knowledge in their closed domains. We show that language models of three different architectures can answer questions about world states using only verb-like encodings of activity. Our approach is extensible to new language models and additional question-answering tasks.

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Data Augmentation of Incorporating Real Error Patterns and Linguistic Knowledge for Grammatical Error Correction
Xia Li | Junyi He

Data augmentation aims at expanding training data with clean text using noising schemes to improve the performance of grammatical error correction (GEC). In practice, there are a great number of real error patterns in the manually annotated training data. We argue that these real error patterns can be introduced into clean text to effectively generate more real and high quality synthetic data, which is not fully explored by previous studies. Moreover, we also find that linguistic knowledge can be incorporated into data augmentation for generating more representative and more diverse synthetic data. In this paper, we propose a novel data augmentation method that fully considers the real error patterns and the linguistic knowledge for the GEC task. We conduct extensive experiments on public data sets and the experimental results show that our method outperforms several strong baselines with far less external unlabeled clean text data, highlighting its extraordinary effectiveness in the GEC task that lacks large-scale labeled training data.

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Agree to Disagree: Analysis of Inter-Annotator Disagreements in Human Evaluation of Machine Translation Output
Maja Popović

This work describes an analysis of inter-annotator disagreements in human evaluation of machine translation output. The errors in the analysed texts were marked by multiple annotators under guidance of different quality criteria: adequacy, comprehension, and an unspecified generic mixture of adequacy and fluency. Our results show that different criteria result in different disagreements, and indicate that a clear definition of quality criterion can improve the inter-annotator agreement. Furthermore, our results show that for certain linguistic phenomena which are not limited to one or two words (such as word ambiguity or gender) but span over several words or even entire phrases (such as negation or relative clause), disagreements do not necessarily represent “errors” or “noise” but are rather inherent to the evaluation process. %These disagreements are caused by differences in error perception and/or the fact that there is no single correct translation of a text so that multiple solutions are possible. On the other hand, for some other phenomena (such as omission or verb forms) agreement can be easily improved by providing more precise and detailed instructions to the evaluators.

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A Multilingual Benchmark for Probing Negation-Awareness with Minimal Pairs
Mareike Hartmann | Miryam de Lhoneux | Daniel Hershcovich | Yova Kementchedjhieva | Lukas Nielsen | Chen Qiu | Anders Søgaard

Negation is one of the most fundamental concepts in human cognition and language, and several natural language inference (NLI) probes have been designed to investigate pretrained language models’ ability to detect and reason with negation. However, the existing probing datasets are limited to English only, and do not enable controlled probing of performance in the absence or presence of negation. In response, we present a multilingual (English, Bulgarian, German, French and Chinese) benchmark collection of NLI examples that are grammatical and correctly labeled, as a result of manual inspection and reformulation. We use the benchmark to probe the negation-awareness of multilingual language models and find that models that correctly predict examples with negation cues, often fail to correctly predict their counter-examples without negation cues, even when the cues are irrelevant for semantic inference.

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Explainable Natural Language to Bash Translation using Abstract Syntax Tree
Shikhar Bharadwaj | Shirish Shevade

Natural language processing for program synthesis has been widely researched. In this work, we focus on generating Bash commands from natural language invocations with explanations. We propose a novel transformer based solution by utilizing Bash Abstract Syntax Trees and manual pages. Our method incorporates tree structure information in the transformer architecture and provides explanations for its predictions via alignment matrices between user invocation and manual page text. Our method performs on par with the state of the art performance on Natural Language Context to Command task and performs better than fine-tuned T5 and Seq2Seq models.

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Learned Construction Grammars Converge Across Registers Given Increased Exposure
Jonathan Dunn | Harish Tayyar Madabushi

This paper measures the impact of increased exposure on whether learned construction grammars converge onto shared representations when trained on data from different registers. Register influences the frequency of constructions, with some structures common in formal but not informal usage. We expect that a grammar induction algorithm exposed to different registers will acquire different constructions. To what degree does increased exposure lead to the convergence of register-specific grammars? The experiments in this paper simulate language learning in 12 languages (half Germanic and half Romance) with corpora representing three registers (Twitter, Wikipedia, Web). These simulations are repeated with increasing amounts of exposure, from 100k to 2 million words, to measure the impact of exposure on the convergence of grammars. The results show that increased exposure does lead to converging grammars across all languages. In addition, a shared core of register-universal constructions remains constant across increasing amounts of exposure.

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Tokenization Repair in the Presence of Spelling Errors
Hannah Bast | Matthias Hertel | Mostafa M. Mohamed

We consider the following tokenization repair problem: Given a natural language text with any combination of missing or spurious spaces, correct these. Spelling errors can be present, but it’s not part of the problem to correct them. For example, given: “Tispa per isabout token izaionrep air”, compute “Tis paper is about tokenizaion repair”. We identify three key ingredients of high-quality tokenization repair, all missing from previous work: deep language models with a bidirectional component, training the models on text with spelling errors, and making use of the space information already present. Our methods also improve existing spell checkers by fixing not only more tokenization errors but also more spelling errors: once it is clear which characters form a word, it is much easier for them to figure out the correct word. We provide six benchmarks that cover three use cases (OCR errors, text extraction from PDF, human errors) and the cases of partially correct space information and all spaces missing. We evaluate our methods against the best existing methods and a non-trivial baseline. We provide full reproducibility under https://ad.informatik.uni-freiburg.de/publications.

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A Coarse-to-Fine Labeling Framework for Joint Word Segmentation, POS Tagging, and Constituent Parsing
Yang Hou | Houquan Zhou | Zhenghua Li | Yu Zhang | Min Zhang | Zhefeng Wang | Baoxing Huai | Nicholas Jing Yuan

The most straightforward approach to joint word segmentation (WS), part-of-speech (POS) tagging, and constituent parsing is converting a word-level tree into a char-level tree, which, however, leads to two severe challenges. First, a larger label set (e.g., ≥ 600) and longer inputs both increase computational costs. Second, it is difficult to rule out illegal trees containing conflicting production rules, which is important for reliable model evaluation. If a POS tag (like VV) is above a phrase tag (like VP) in the output tree, it becomes quite complex to decide word boundaries. To deal with both challenges, this work proposes a two-stage coarse-to-fine labeling framework for joint WS-POS-PAR. In the coarse labeling stage, the joint model outputs a bracketed tree, in which each node corresponds to one of four labels (i.e., phrase, subphrase, word, subword). The tree is guaranteed to be legal via constrained CKY decoding. In the fine labeling stage, the model expands each coarse label into a final label (such as VP, VP*, VV, VV*). Experiments on Chinese Penn Treebank 5.1 and 7.0 show that our joint model consistently outperforms the pipeline approach on both settings of w/o and w/ BERT, and achieves new state-of-the-art performance.

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Understanding the Extent to which Content Quality Metrics Measure the Information Quality of Summaries
Daniel Deutsch | Dan Roth

Reference-based metrics such as ROUGE or BERTScore evaluate the content quality of a summary by comparing the summary to a reference. Ideally, this comparison should measure the summary’s information quality by calculating how much information the summaries have in common. In this work, we analyze the token alignments used by ROUGE and BERTScore to compare summaries and argue that their scores largely cannot be interpreted as measuring information overlap. Rather, they are better estimates of the extent to which the summaries discuss the same topics. Further, we provide evidence that this result holds true for many other summarization evaluation metrics. The consequence of this result is that the most frequently used summarization evaluation metrics do not align with the community’s research goal, to generate summaries with high-quality information. However, we conclude by demonstrating that a recently proposed metric, QAEval, which scores summaries using question-answering, appears to better capture information quality than current evaluations, highlighting a direction for future research.

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Summary-Source Proposition-level Alignment: Task, Datasets and Supervised Baseline
Ori Ernst | Ori Shapira | Ramakanth Pasunuru | Michael Lepioshkin | Jacob Goldberger | Mohit Bansal | Ido Dagan

Aligning sentences in a reference summary with their counterparts in source documents was shown as a useful auxiliary summarization task, notably for generating training data for salience detection. Despite its assessed utility, the alignment step was mostly approached with heuristic unsupervised methods, typically ROUGE-based, and was never independently optimized or evaluated. In this paper, we propose establishing summary-source alignment as an explicit task, while introducing two major novelties: (1) applying it at the more accurate proposition span level, and (2) approaching it as a supervised classification task. To that end, we created a novel training dataset for proposition-level alignment, derived automatically from available summarization evaluation data. In addition, we crowdsourced dev and test datasets, enabling model development and proper evaluation. Utilizing these data, we present a supervised proposition alignment baseline model, showing improved alignment-quality over the unsupervised approach.

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Exploring Metaphoric Paraphrase Generation
Kevin Stowe | Nils Beck | Iryna Gurevych

Metaphor generation is a difficult task, and has seen tremendous improvement with the advent of deep pretrained models. We focus here on the specific task of metaphoric paraphrase generation, in which we provide a literal sentence and generate a metaphoric sentence which paraphrases that input. We compare naive, “free” generation models with those that exploit forms of control over the generation process, adding additional information based on conceptual metaphor theory. We evaluate two methods for generating paired training data, which is then used to train T5 models for free and controlled generation. We use crowdsourcing to evaluate the results, showing that free models tend to generate more fluent paraphrases, while controlled models are better at generating novel metaphors. We then analyze evaluation metrics, showing that different metrics are necessary to capture different aspects of metaphoric paraphrasing. We release our data and models, as well as our annotated results in order to facilitate development of better evaluation metrics.

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Imposing Relation Structure in Language-Model Embeddings Using Contrastive Learning
Christos Theodoropoulos | James Henderson | Andrei Catalin Coman | Marie-Francine Moens

Though language model text embeddings have revolutionized NLP research, their ability to capture high-level semantic information, such as relations between entities in text, is limited. In this paper, we propose a novel contrastive learning framework that trains sentence embeddings to encode the relations in a graph structure. Given a sentence (unstructured text) and its graph, we use contrastive learning to impose relation-related structure on the token level representations of the sentence obtained with a CharacterBERT (El Boukkouri et al., 2020) model. The resulting relation-aware sentence embeddings achieve state-of-the-art results on the relation extraction task using only a simple KNN classifier, thereby demonstrating the success of the proposed method. Additional visualization by a tSNE analysis shows the effectiveness of the learned representation space compared to baselines. Furthermore, we show that we can learn a different space for named entity recognition, again using a contrastive learning objective, and demonstrate how to successfully combine both representation spaces in an entity-relation task.

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NOPE: A Corpus of Naturally-Occurring Presuppositions in English
Alicia Parrish | Sebastian Schuster | Alex Warstadt | Omar Agha | Soo-Hwan Lee | Zhuoye Zhao | Samuel R. Bowman | Tal Linzen

Understanding language requires grasping not only the overtly stated content, but also making inferences about things that were left unsaid. These inferences include presuppositions, a phenomenon by which a listener learns about new information through reasoning about what a speaker takes as given. Presuppositions require complex understanding of the lexical and syntactic properties that trigger them as well as the broader conversational context. In this work, we introduce the Naturally-Occurring Presuppositions in English (NOPE) Corpus to investigate the context-sensitivity of 10 different types of presupposition triggers and to evaluate machine learning models’ ability to predict human inferences. We find that most of the triggers we investigate exhibit moderate variability. We further find that transformer-based models draw correct inferences in simple cases involving presuppositions, but they fail to capture the minority of exceptional cases in which human judgments reveal complex interactions between context and triggers.

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Pragmatic competence of pre-trained language models through the lens of discourse connectives
Lalchand Pandia | Yan Cong | Allyson Ettinger

As pre-trained language models (LMs) continue to dominate NLP, it is increasingly important that we understand the depth of language capabilities in these models. In this paper, we target pre-trained LMs’ competence in pragmatics, with a focus on pragmatics relating to discourse connectives. We formulate cloze-style tests using a combination of naturally-occurring data and controlled inputs drawn from psycholinguistics. We focus on testing models’ ability to use pragmatic cues to predict discourse connectives, models’ ability to understand implicatures relating to connectives, and the extent to which models show humanlike preferences regarding temporal dynamics of connectives. We find that although models predict connectives reasonably well in the context of naturally-occurring data, when we control contexts to isolate high-level pragmatic cues, model sensitivity is much lower. Models also do not show substantial humanlike temporal preferences. Overall, the findings suggest that at present, dominant pre-training paradigms do not result in substantial pragmatic competence in our models.

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Predicting Text Readability from Scrolling Interactions
Sian Gooding | Yevgeni Berzak | Tony Mak | Matt Sharifi

Judging the readability of text has many important applications, for instance when performing text simplification or when sourcing reading material for language learners. In this paper, we present a 518 participant study which investigates how scrolling behaviour relates to the readability of English texts. We make our dataset publicly available and show that (1) there are statistically significant differences in the way readers interact with text depending on the text level, (2) such measures can be used to predict the readability of text, and (3) the background of a reader impacts their reading interactions and the factors contributing to text difficulty.

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Modeling the Interaction Between Perception-Based and Production-Based Learning in Children’s Early Acquisition of Semantic Knowledge
Mitja Nikolaus | Abdellah Fourtassi

Children learn the meaning of words and sentences in their native language at an impressive speed and from highly ambiguous input. To account for this learning, previous computational modeling has focused mainly on the study of perception-based mechanisms like cross-situational learning. However, children do not learn only by exposure to the input. As soon as they start to talk, they practice their knowledge in social interactions and they receive feedback from their caregivers. In this work, we propose a model integrating both perception- and production-based learning using artificial neural networks which we train on a large corpus of crowd-sourced images with corresponding descriptions. We found that production-based learning improves performance above and beyond perception-based learning across a wide range of semantic tasks including both word- and sentence-level semantics. In addition, we documented a synergy between these two mechanisms, where their alternation allows the model to converge on more balanced semantic knowledge. The broader impact of this work is to highlight the importance of modeling language learning in the context of social interactions where children are not only understood as passively absorbing the input, but also as actively participating in the construction of their linguistic knowledge.

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Scaffolded input promotes atomic organization in the recurrent neural network language model
Philip A. Huebner | Jon A. Willits

The recurrent neural network (RNN) language model is a powerful tool for learning arbitrary sequential dependencies in language data. Despite its enormous success in representing lexical sequences, little is known about the quality of the lexical representations that it acquires. In this work, we conjecture that it is straightforward to extract lexical representations (i.e. static word embeddings) from an RNN, but that the amount of semantic information that is encoded is limited when lexical items in the training data provide redundant semantic information. We conceptualize this limitation of the RNN as a failure to learn atomic internal states - states which capture information relevant to single word types without being influenced by redundant information provided by words with which they co-occur. Using a corpus of artificial language, we verify that redundancy in the training data yields non-atomic internal states, and propose a novel method for inducing atomic internal states. We show that 1) our method successfully induces atomic internal organization in controlled experiments, and 2) under more realistic conditions in which the training consists of child-directed language, application of our method improves the performance of lexical representations on a downstream semantic categorization task.

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Grammatical Profiling for Semantic Change Detection
Andrey Kutuzov | Lidia Pivovarova | Mario Giulianelli

Semantics, morphology and syntax are strongly interdependent. However, the majority of computational methods for semantic change detection use distributional word representations which encode mostly semantics. We investigate an alternative method, grammatical profiling, based entirely on changes in the morphosyntactic behaviour of words. We demonstrate that it can be used for semantic change detection and even outperforms some distributional semantic methods. We present an in-depth qualitative and quantitative analysis of the predictions made by our grammatical profiling system, showing that they are plausible and interpretable.

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Deconstructing syntactic generalizations with minimalist grammars
Marina Ermolaeva

Within the currently dominant Minimalist framework for syntax (Chomsky, 1995, 2000), it is not uncommon to encounter multiple proposals for the same natural language pattern in the literature. We investigate the possibility of evaluating and comparing analyses of syntax phenomena, implemented as minimalist grammars (Stabler, 1997), from a quantitative point of view. This paper introduces a principled way of making linguistic generalizations by detecting and eliminating syntactic and phonological redundancies in the data. As proof of concept, we first provide a small step-by-step example transforming a naive grammar over unsegmented words into a linguistically motivated grammar over morphemes, and then discuss a description of the English auxiliary system, passives, and raising verbs produced by a prototype implementation of a procedure for automated grammar optimization.

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Relation-aware Bidirectional Path Reasoning for Commonsense Question Answering
Junxing Wang | Xinyi Li | Zhen Tan | Xiang Zhao | Weidong Xiao

Commonsense Question Answering is an important natural language processing (NLP) task that aims to predict the correct answer to a question through commonsense reasoning. Previous studies utilize pre-trained models on large-scale corpora such as BERT, or perform reasoning on knowledge graphs. However, these methods do not explicitly model the relations that connect entities, which are informational and can be used to enhance reasoning. To address this issue, we propose a relation-aware reasoning method. Our method uses a relation-aware graph neural network to capture the rich contextual information from both entities and relations. Compared with methods that use fixed relation embeddings from pre-trained models, our model dynamically updates relations with contextual information from a multi-source subgraph, built from multiple external knowledge sources. The enhanced representations of relations are then fed to a bidirectional reasoning module. A bidirectional attention mechanism is applied between the question sequence and the paths that connect entities, which provides us with transparent interpretability. Experimental results on the CommonsenseQA dataset illustrate that our method results in significant improvements over the baselines while also providing clear reasoning paths.

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Does referent predictability affect the choice of referential form? A computational approach using masked coreference resolution
Laura Aina | Xixian Liao | Gemma Boleda | Matthijs Westera

It is often posited that more predictable parts of a speaker’s meaning tend to be made less explicit, for instance using shorter, less informative words. Studying these dynamics in the domain of referring expressions has proven difficult, with existing studies, both psycholinguistic and corpus-based, providing contradictory results. We test the hypothesis that speakers produce less informative referring expressions (e.g., pronouns vs. full noun phrases) when the context is more informative about the referent, using novel computational estimates of referent predictability. We obtain these estimates training an existing coreference resolution system for English on a new task, masked coreference resolution, giving us a probability distribution over referents that is conditioned on the context but not the referring expression. The resulting system retains standard coreference resolution performance while yielding a better estimate of human-derived referent predictability than previous attempts. A statistical analysis of the relationship between model output and mention form supports the hypothesis that predictability affects the form of a mention, both its morphosyntactic type and its length.

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Polar Embedding
Ran Iwamoto | Ryosuke Kohita | Akifumi Wachi

Hierarchical relationships are invaluable information for many natural language processing (NLP) tasks. Distributional representation has become a fundamental approach for encoding word relationships, particularly embeddings in hyperbolic space showed great performance in representing hierarchies by taking advantage of their spatial properties. However, most machine learning systems do not suppose to use in such complex non-Euclidean geometries. To achieve hierarchy representations in commonly used Euclidean space, we propose Polar Embedding that learns word embeddings with the polar coordinate system. Utilizing characteristics of polar coordinates, the hierarchy of words is expressed with two independent variables: radius (generality) and angles (similarity), and their variables are optimized separately. Polar embedding shows word hierarchies explicitly and allows us to use beneficial resources such as word frequencies or word generality annotations for computing radiuses. We introduce an optimization method for learning angles in limited ranges of polar coordinates, which combining a loss function controlling gradient and distribution uniformization. Experimental results on hypernymy datasets indicate that our approach outperforms other embeddings in low-dimensional Euclidean space and competitively performs even with hyperbolic embeddings, which possess a geometric advantage.

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Commonsense Knowledge in Word Associations and ConceptNet
Chunhua Liu | Trevor Cohn | Lea Frermann

Humans use countless basic, shared facts about the world to efficiently navigate in their environment. This commonsense knowledge is rarely communicated explicitly, however, understanding how commonsense knowledge is represented in different paradigms is important for (a) a deeper understanding of human cognition and (b) augmenting automatic reasoning systems. This paper presents an in-depth comparison of two large-scale resources of general knowledge: ConceptNet, an engineered relational database, and SWOW, a knowledge graph derived from crowd-sourced word associations. We examine the structure, overlap and differences between the two graphs, as well as the extent of situational commonsense knowledge present in the two resources. We finally show empirically that both resources improve downstream task performance on commonsense reasoning benchmarks over text-only baselines, suggesting that large-scale word association data, which have been obtained for several languages through crowd-sourcing, can be a valuable complement to curated knowledge graphs.

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Cross-document Event Identity via Dense Annotation
Adithya Pratapa | Zhengzhong Liu | Kimihiro Hasegawa | Linwei Li | Yukari Yamakawa | Shikun Zhang | Teruko Mitamura

In this paper, we study the identity of textual events from different documents. While the complex nature of event identity is previously studied (Hovy et al., 2013), the case of events across documents is unclear. Prior work on cross-document event coreference has two main drawbacks. First, they restrict the annotations to a limited set of event types. Second, they insufficiently tackle the concept of event identity. Such annotation setup reduces the pool of event mentions and prevents one from considering the possibility of quasi-identity relations. We propose a dense annotation approach for cross-document event coreference, comprising a rich source of event mentions and a dense annotation effort between related document pairs. To this end, we design a new annotation workflow with careful quality control and an easy-to-use annotation interface. In addition to the links, we further collect overlapping event contexts, including time, location, and participants, to shed some light on the relation between identity decisions and context. We present an open-access dataset for cross-document event coreference, CDEC-WN, collected from English Wikinews and open-source our annotation toolkit to encourage further research on cross-document tasks.

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Tackling Zero Pronoun Resolution and Non-Zero Coreference Resolution Jointly
Shisong Chen | Binbin Gu | Jianfeng Qu | Zhixu Li | An Liu | Lei Zhao | Zhigang Chen

Zero pronoun resolution aims at recognizing dropped pronouns and pointing out their anaphoric mentions, while non-zero coreference resolution targets at clustering mentions referring to the same entity. Existing efforts often deal with the two problems separately regardless of their close essential correlations. In this paper, we investigate the possibility of jointly solving zero pronoun resolution and coreference resolution via a novel end-to-end neural model. Specifically, we design a gap-masked self-attention model that encodes gaps and tokens in the same space, where gaps could capture valuable contextual information according to their surrounding tokens while tokens could maintain original sequential information without disturbance. Additionally, we also propose a two-stage interaction mechanism to make full use of the exclusive relationship between zero pronouns and mentions. Our empirical study conducted on the OntoNotes 5.0 Chinese dataset shows that our model could outperform corresponding state-of-the-art approaches on both tasks.

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Negation-Instance Based Evaluation of End-to-End Negation Resolution
Elizaveta Sineva | Stefan Grünewald | Annemarie Friedrich | Jonas Kuhn

In this paper, we revisit the task of negation resolution, which includes the subtasks of cue detection (e.g. “not”, “never”) and scope resolution. In the context of previous shared tasks, a variety of evaluation metrics have been proposed. Subsequent works usually use different subsets of these, including variations and custom implementations, rendering meaningful comparisons between systems difficult. Examining the problem both from a linguistic perspective and from a downstream viewpoint, we here argue for a negation-instance based approach to evaluating negation resolution. Our proposed metrics correspond to expectations over per-instance scores and hence are intuitively interpretable. To render research comparable and to foster future work, we provide results for a set of current state-of-the-art systems for negation resolution on three English corpora, and make our implementation of the evaluation scripts publicly available.

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Controlling Prosody in End-to-End TTS: A Case Study on Contrastive Focus Generation
Siddique Latif | Inyoung Kim | Ioan Calapodescu | Laurent Besacier

While End-2-End Text-to-Speech (TTS) has made significant progresses over the past few years, these systems still lack intuitive user controls over prosody. For instance, generating speech with fine-grained prosody control (prosodic prominence, contextually appropriate emotions) is still an open challenge. In this paper, we investigate whether we can control prosody directly from the input text, in order to code information related to contrastive focus which emphasizes a specific word that is contrary to the presuppositions of the interlocutor. We build and share a specific dataset for this purpose and show that it allows to train a TTS system were this fine-grained prosodic feature can be correctly conveyed using control tokens. Our evaluation compares synthetic and natural utterances and shows that prosodic patterns of contrastive focus (variations of Fo, Intensity and Duration) can be learnt accurately. Such a milestone is important to allow, for example, smart speakers to be programmatically controlled in terms of output prosody.

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A Large-scale Comprehensive Abusiveness Detection Dataset with Multifaceted Labels from Reddit
Hoyun Song | Soo Hyun Ryu | Huije Lee | Jong Park

As users in online communities suffer from severe side effects of abusive language, many researchers attempted to detect abusive texts from social media, presenting several datasets for such detection. However, none of them contain both comprehensive labels and contextual information, which are essential for thoroughly detecting all kinds of abusiveness from texts, since datasets with such fine-grained features demand a significant amount of annotations, leading to much increased complexity. In this paper, we propose a Comprehensive Abusiveness Detection Dataset (CADD), collected from the English Reddit posts, with multifaceted labels and contexts. Our dataset is annotated hierarchically for an efficient annotation through crowdsourcing on a large-scale. We also empirically explore the characteristics of our dataset and provide a detailed analysis for novel insights. The results of our experiments with strong pre-trained natural language understanding models on our dataset show that our dataset gives rise to meaningful performance, assuring its practicality for abusive language detection.

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MirrorWiC: On Eliciting Word-in-Context Representations from Pretrained Language Models
Qianchu Liu | Fangyu Liu | Nigel Collier | Anna Korhonen | Ivan Vulić

Recent work indicated that pretrained language models (PLMs) such as BERT and RoBERTa can be transformed into effective sentence and word encoders even via simple self-supervised techniques. Inspired by this line of work, in this paper we propose a fully unsupervised approach to improving word-in-context (WiC) representations in PLMs, achieved via a simple and efficient WiC-targeted fine-tuning procedure: MirrorWiC. The proposed method leverages only raw texts sampled from Wikipedia, assuming no sense-annotated data, and learns context-aware word representations within a standard contrastive learning setup. We experiment with a series of standard and comprehensive WiC benchmarks across multiple languages. Our proposed fully unsupervised MirrorWiC models obtain substantial gains over off-the-shelf PLMs across all monolingual, multilingual and cross-lingual setups. Moreover, on some standard WiC benchmarks, MirrorWiC is even on-par with supervised models fine-tuned with in-task data and sense labels.

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A Data Bootstrapping Recipe for Low-Resource Multilingual Relation Classification
Arijit Nag | Bidisha Samanta | Animesh Mukherjee | Niloy Ganguly | Soumen Chakrabarti

Relation classification (sometimes called ‘extraction’) requires trustworthy datasets for fine-tuning large language models, as well as for evaluation. Data collection is challenging for Indian languages, because they are syntactically and morphologically diverse, as well as different from resource-rich languages like English. Despite recent interest in deep generative models for Indian languages, relation classification is still not well-served by public data sets. In response, we present IndoRE, a dataset with 39K entity- and relation-tagged gold sentences in three Indian languages, plus English. We start with a multilingual BERT (mBERT) based system that captures entity span positions and type information and provides competitive monolingual relation classification. Using this system, we explore and compare transfer mechanisms between languages. In particular, we study the accuracy-efficiency tradeoff between expensive gold instances vs. translated and aligned ‘silver’ instances.

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FAST: A carefully sampled and cognitively motivated dataset for distributional semantic evaluation
Stefan Evert | Gabriella Lapesa

What is the first word that comes to your mind when you hear giraffe, or damsel, or freedom? Such free associations contain a huge amount of information on the mental representations of the corresponding concepts, and are thus an extremely valuable testbed for the evaluation of semantic representations extracted from corpora. In this paper, we present FAST (Free ASsociation Tasks), a free association dataset for English rigorously sampled from two standard free association norms collections (the Edinburgh Associative Thesaurus and the University of South Florida Free Association Norms), discuss two evaluation tasks, and provide baseline results. In parallel, we discuss methodological considerations concerning the desiderata for a proper evaluation of semantic representations.

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Automatic Error Type Annotation for Arabic
Riadh Belkebir | Nizar Habash

We present ARETA, an automatic error type annotation system for Modern Standard Arabic. We design ARETA to address Arabic’s morphological richness and orthographic ambiguity. We base our error taxonomy on the Arabic Learner Corpus (ALC) Error Tagset with some modifications. ARETA achieves a performance of 85.8% (micro average F1 score) on a manually annotated blind test portion of ALC. We also demonstrate ARETA’s usability by applying it to a number of submissions from the QALB 2014 shared task for Arabic grammatical error correction. The resulting analyses give helpful insights on the strengths and weaknesses of different submissions, which is more useful than the opaque M2 scoring metrics used in the shared task. ARETA employs a large Arabic morphological analyzer, but is completely unsupervised otherwise. We make ARETA publicly available.

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The Emergence of the Shape Bias Results from Communicative Efficiency
Eva Portelance | Michael C. Frank | Dan Jurafsky | Alessandro Sordoni | Romain Laroche

By the age of two, children tend to assume that new word categories are based on objects’ shape, rather than their color or texture; this assumption is called the shape bias. They are thought to learn this bias by observing that their caregiver’s language is biased towards shape based categories. This presents a chicken and egg problem: if the shape bias must be present in the language in order for children to learn it, how did it arise in language in the first place? In this paper, we propose that communicative efficiency explains both how the shape bias emerged and why it persists across generations. We model this process with neural emergent language agents that learn to communicate about raw pixelated images. First, we show that the shape bias emerges as a result of efficient communication strategies employed by agents. Second, we show that pressure brought on by communicative need is also necessary for it to persist across generations; simply having a shape bias in an agent’s input language is insufficient. These results suggest that, over and above the operation of other learning strategies, the shape bias in human learners may emerge and be sustained by communicative pressures.

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BabyBERTa: Learning More Grammar With Small-Scale Child-Directed Language
Philip A. Huebner | Elior Sulem | Fisher Cynthia | Dan Roth

Transformer-based language models have taken the NLP world by storm. However, their potential for addressing important questions in language acquisition research has been largely ignored. In this work, we examined the grammatical knowledge of RoBERTa (Liu et al., 2019) when trained on a 5M word corpus of language acquisition data to simulate the input available to children between the ages 1 and 6. Using the behavioral probing paradigm, we found that a smaller version of RoBERTa-base that never predicts unmasked tokens, which we term BabyBERTa, acquires grammatical knowledge comparable to that of pre-trained RoBERTa-base - and does so with approximately 15X fewer parameters and 6,000X fewer words. We discuss implications for building more efficient models and the learnability of grammar from input available to children. Lastly, to support research on this front, we release our novel grammar test suite that is compatible with the small vocabulary of child-directed input.

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Analysing Human Strategies of Information Transmission as a Function of Discourse Context
Mario Giulianelli | Raquel Fernández

Speakers are thought to use rational information transmission strategies for efficient communication (Genzel and Charniak, 2002; Aylett and Turk, 2004; Jaeger and Levy, 2007). Previous work analysing these strategies in sentence production has failed to take into account how the information content of sentences varies as a function of the available discourse context. In this study, we estimate sentence information content within discourse context. We find that speakers transmit information at a stable rate—i.e., rationally—in English newspaper articles but that this rate decreases in spoken open domain and written task-oriented dialogues. We also observe that speakers’ choices are not oriented towards local uniformity of information, which is another hypothesised rational strategy. We suggest that a more faithful model of communication should explicitly include production costs and goal-oriented rewards.

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Predicting non-native speech perception using the Perceptual Assimilation Model and state-of-the-art acoustic models
Juliette Millet | Ioana Chitoran | Ewan Dunbar

Our native language influences the way we perceive speech sounds, affecting our ability to discriminate non-native sounds. We compare two ideas about the influence of the native language on speech perception: the Perceptual Assimilation Model, which appeals to a mental classification of sounds into native phoneme categories, versus the idea that rich, fine-grained phonetic representations tuned to the statistics of the native language, are sufficient. We operationalise this idea using representations from two state-of-the-art speech models, a Dirichlet process Gaussian mixture model and the more recent wav2vec 2.0 model. We present a new, open dataset of French- and English-speaking participants’ speech perception behaviour for 61 vowel sounds from six languages. We show that phoneme assimilation is a better predictor than fine-grained phonetic modelling, both for the discrimination behaviour as a whole, and for predicting differences in discriminability associated with differences in native language background. We also show that wav2vec 2.0, while not good at capturing the effects of native language on speech perception, is complementary to information about native phoneme assimilation, and provides a good model of low-level phonetic representations, supporting the idea that both categorical and fine-grained perception are used during speech perception.

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The Influence of Regional Pronunciation Variation on Children’s Spelling and the Potential Benefits of Accent Adapted Spellcheckers
Emma O’Neill | Joe Kenny | Anthony Ventresque | Julie Carson-Berndsen

A child who is unfamiliar with the correct spelling of a word often employs a “sound it out” approach: breaking the word down into its constituent sounds and then choosing letters to represent the identified sounds. This often results in a misspelling that is orthographically very different to the intended target. Recently, efforts have been made to develop phonetic based spellcheckers to tackle the more deviant nature of children’s misspellings. However, little work has been done to investigate the potential of spelling correction tools that incorporate regional pronunciation variation. If a child must first identify the sounds that make up a word, it stands to reason their pronunciation would influence this process. We investigate this hypothesis along with the feasibility and potential benefits of adapting spelling correction tools to more specific language variants - particularly Irish Accented English. We use misspelling data from schoolchildren across Ireland to adapt an existing English phonetic-based spellchecker and demonstrate improvements in performance. These results not only prompt consideration of language varieties in the development of spellcheckers but also contribute to existing literature on the role of regional accent in the acquisition of writing proficiency.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Fourth Workshop on Computational Models of Reference, Anaphora and Coreference

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Proceedings of the Fourth Workshop on Computational Models of Reference, Anaphora and Coreference
Maciej Ogrodniczuk | Sameer Pradhan | Massimo Poesio | Yulia Grishina | Vincent Ng

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A Brief Survey and Comparative Study of Recent Development of Pronoun Coreference Resolution in English
Hongming Zhang | Xinran Zhao | Yangqiu Song

Pronoun Coreference Resolution (PCR) is the task of resolving pronominal expressions to all mentions they refer to. Compared with the general coreference resolution task, the main challenge of PCR is the coreference relation prediction rather than the mention detection. As one important natural language understanding (NLU) component, pronoun resolution is crucial for many downstream tasks and still challenging for existing models, which motivates us to survey existing approaches and think about how to do better. In this survey, we first introduce representative datasets and models for the ordinary pronoun coreference resolution task. Then we focus on recent progress on hard pronoun coreference resolution problems (e.g., Winograd Schema Challenge) to analyze how well current models can understand commonsense. We conduct extensive experiments to show that even though current models are achieving good performance on the standard evaluation set, they are still not ready to be used in real applications (e.g., all SOTA models struggle on correctly resolving pronouns to infrequent objects). All experiment codes will be available upon acceptance.

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Coreference Resolution for the Biomedical Domain: A Survey
Pengcheng Lu | Massimo Poesio

Issues with coreference resolution are one of the most frequently mentioned challenges for information extraction from the biomedical literature. Thus, the biomedical genre has long been the second most researched genre for coreference resolution after the news domain, and the subject of a great deal of research for NLP in general. In recent years this interest has grown enormously leading to the development of a number of substantial datasets, of domain-specific contextual language models, and of several architectures. In this paper we review the state of-the-art of coreference in the biomedical domain with a particular attention on these most recent developments.

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FantasyCoref: Coreference Resolution on Fantasy Literature Through Omniscient Writer’s Point of View
Sooyoun Han | Sumin Seo | Minji Kang | Jongin Kim | Nayoung Choi | Min Song | Jinho D. Choi

This paper presents a new corpus and annotation guideline for a novel coreference resolution task on fictional texts, and analyzes its unique characteristics. FantasyCoref contains 211 stories of Grimms’ Fairy Tales and 3 other fantasy literature annotated in the omniscient writer’s point of view (OWV) to handle distinctive aspects in this genre. This task is more challenging than general coreference resolution in two ways. First, documents in our corpus are 2.5 times longer than the ones in OntoNotes, raising a new layer of difficulty in resolving long-distant referents. Second, annotation of literary styles and concepts raise several issues which are not sufficiently addressed in the existing annotation guidelines. Hence, considerations on such issues and the concept of OWV are necessary to achieve high inter-annotator agreement (IAA) in coreference resolution of fictional texts. We carefully conduct annotation tasks in four stages to ensure the quality of our annotation. As a result, a high IAA score of 87% is achieved using the standard coreference evaluation metric. Finally, state-of-the-art coreference resolution approaches are evaluated on our corpus. After training with our annotated dataset, there was a 2.59% and 3.06% improvement over the model trained on the OntoNotes dataset. Also, we observe that the portion of errors specific to fictional texts declines after the training.

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DramaCoref: A Hybrid Coreference Resolution System for German Theater Plays
Janis Pagel | Nils Reiter

We present a system for resolving coreference on theater plays, DramaCoref. The system uses neural network techniques to provide a list of potential mentions. These mentions are assigned to common entities using generic and domain-specific rules. We find that DramaCoref works well on the theater plays when compared to corpora from other domains and profits from the inclusion of information specific to theater plays. On the best-performing setup, it achieves a CoNLL score of 32% when using automatically detected mentions and 55% when using gold mentions. Single rules achieve high precision scores; however, rules designed on other domains are often not applicable or yield unsatisfactory results. Error analysis shows that the mention detection is the main weakness of the system, providing directions for future improvements.

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A Hybrid Rule-Based and Neural Coreference Resolution System with an Evaluation on Dutch Literature
Andreas van Cranenburgh | Esther Ploeger | Frank van den Berg | Remi Thüss

We introduce a modular, hybrid coreference resolution system that extends a rule-based baseline with three neural classifiers for the subtasks mention detection, mention attributes (gender, animacy, number), and pronoun resolution. The classifiers substantially increase coreference performance in our experiments with Dutch literature across all metrics on the development set: mention detection, LEA, CoNLL, and especially pronoun accuracy. However, on the test set, the best results are obtained with rule-based pronoun resolution. This inconsistent result highlights that the rule-based system is still a strong baseline, and more work is needed to improve pronoun resolution robustly for this dataset. While end-to-end neural systems require no feature engineering and achieve excellent performance in standard benchmarks with large training sets, our simple hybrid system scales well to long document coreference (>10k words) and attains superior results in our experiments on literature.

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Lazy Low-Resource Coreference Resolution: a Study on Leveraging Black-Box Translation Tools
Semere Kiros Bitew | Johannes Deleu | Chris Develder | Thomas Demeester

Large annotated corpora for coreference resolution are available for few languages. For machine translation, however, strong black-box systems exist for many languages. We empirically explore the appealing idea of leveraging such translation tools for bootstrapping coreference resolution in languages with limited resources. Two scenarios are analyzed, in which a large coreference corpus in a high-resource language is used for coreference predictions in a smaller language, i.e., by machine translating either the training corpus or the test data. In our empirical evaluation of coreference resolution using the two scenarios on several medium-resource languages, we find no improvement over monolingual baseline models. Our analysis of the various sources of error inherent to the studied scenarios, reveals that in fact the quality of contemporary machine translation tools is the main limiting factor.

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Resources and Evaluations for Danish Entity Resolution
Maria Barrett | Hieu Lam | Martin Wu | Ophélie Lacroix | Barbara Plank | Anders Søgaard

Automatic coreference resolution is understudied in Danish even though most of the Danish Dependency Treebank (Buch-Kromann, 2003) is annotated with coreference relations. This paper describes a conversion of its partial, yet well-documented, coreference relations into coreference clusters and the training and evaluation of coreference models on this data. To the best of our knowledge, these are the first publicly available, neural coreference models for Danish. We also present a new entity linking annotation on the dataset using WikiData identifiers, a named entity disambiguation (NED) dataset, and a larger automatically created NED dataset enabling wikily supervised NED models. The entity linking annotation is benchmarked using a state-of-the-art neural entity disambiguation model.

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CoreLM: Coreference-aware Language Model Fine-Tuning
Nikolaos Stylianou | Ioannis Vlahavas

Language Models are the underpin of all modern Natural Language Processing (NLP) tasks. The introduction of the Transformers architecture has contributed significantly into making Language Modeling very effective across many NLP task, leading to significant advancements in the field. However, Transformers come with a big computational cost, which grows quadratically with respect to the input length. This presents a challenge as to understand long texts requires a lot of context. In this paper, we propose a Fine-Tuning framework, named CoreLM, that extends the architecture of current Pretrained Language Models so that they incorporate explicit entity information. By introducing entity representations, we make available information outside the contextual space of the model, which results in a better Language Model for a fraction of the computational cost. We implement our approach using GPT2 and compare the fine-tuned model to the original. Our proposed model achieves a lower Perplexity in GUMBY and LAMBDADA datasets when compared to GPT2 and a fine-tuned version of GPT2 without any changes. We also compare the models’ performance in terms of Accuracy in LAMBADA and Children’s Book Test, with and without the use of model-created coreference annotations.

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Data Augmentation Methods for Anaphoric Zero Pronouns
Abdulrahman Aloraini | Massimo Poesio

In pro-drop language like Arabic, Chinese, Italian, Japanese, Spanish, and many others, unrealized (null) arguments in certain syntactic positions can refer to a previously introduced entity, and are thus called anaphoric zero pronouns. The existing resources for studying anaphoric zero pronoun interpretation are however still limited. In this paper, we use five data augmentation methods to generate and detect anaphoric zero pronouns automatically. We use the augmented data as additional training materials for two anaphoric zero pronoun systems for Arabic. Our experimental results show that data augmentation improves the performance of the two systems, surpassing the state-of-the-art results.

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Exploring Pre-Trained Transformers and Bilingual Transfer Learning for Arabic Coreference Resolution
Bonan Min

In this paper, we develop bilingual transfer learning approaches to improve Arabic coreference resolution by leveraging additional English annotation via bilingual or multilingual pre-trained transformers. We show that bilingual transfer learning improves the strong transformer-based neural coreference models by 2-4 F1. We also systemically investigate the effectiveness of several pre-trained transformer models that differ in training corpora, languages covered, and model capacity. Our best model achieves a new state-of-the-art performance of 64.55 F1 on the Arabic OntoNotes dataset. Our code is publicly available at https://github.com/bnmin/arabic_coref.

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Event and Entity Coreference using Trees to Encode Uncertainty in Joint Decisions
Nishant Yadav | Nicholas Monath | Rico Angell | Andrew McCallum

Coreference decisions among event mentions and among co-occurring entity mentions are highly interdependent, thus motivating joint inference. Capturing the uncertainty over each variable can be crucial for inference among multiple dependent variables. Previous work on joint coreference employs heuristic approaches, lacking well-defined objectives, and lacking modeling of uncertainty on each side of the joint problem. We present a new approach of joint coreference, including (1) a formal cost function inspired by Dasgupta’s cost for hierarchical clustering, and (2) a representation for uncertainty of clustering of event and entity mentions, again based on a hierarchical structure. We describe an alternating optimization method for inference that when clustering event mentions, considers the uncertainty of the clustering of entity mentions and vice-versa. We show that our proposed joint model provides empirical advantages over state-of-the-art independent and joint models.

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On Generalization in Coreference Resolution
Shubham Toshniwal | Patrick Xia | Sam Wiseman | Karen Livescu | Kevin Gimpel

While coreference resolution is defined independently of dataset domain, most models for performing coreference resolution do not transfer well to unseen domains. We consolidate a set of 8 coreference resolution datasets targeting different domains to evaluate the off-the-shelf performance of models. We then mix three datasets for training; even though their domain, annotation guidelines, and metadata differ, we propose a method for jointly training a single model on this heterogeneous data mixture by using data augmentation to account for annotation differences and sampling to balance the data quantities. We find that in a zero-shot setting, models trained on a single dataset transfer poorly while joint training yields improved overall performance, leading to better generalization in coreference resolution models. This work contributes a new benchmark for robust coreference resolution and multiple new state-of-the-art results.

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Improving Span Representation for Domain-adapted Coreference Resolution
Nupoor Gandhi | Anjalie Field | Yulia Tsvetkov

Recent work has shown fine-tuning neural coreference models can produce strong performance when adapting to different domains. However, at the same time, this can require a large amount of annotated target examples. In this work, we focus on supervised domain adaptation for clinical notes, proposing the use of concept knowledge to more efficiently adapt coreference models to a new domain. We develop methods to improve the span representations via (1) a retrofitting loss to incentivize span representations to satisfy a knowledge-based distance function and (2) a scaffolding loss to guide the recovery of knowledge from the span representation. By integrating these losses, our model is able to improve our baseline precision and F-1 score. In particular, we show that incorporating knowledge with end-to-end coreference models results in better performance on the most challenging, domain-specific spans.

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Coreference by Appearance: Visually Grounded Event Coreference Resolution
Liming Wang | Shengyu Feng | Xudong Lin | Manling Li | Heng Ji | Shih-Fu Chang

Event coreference resolution is critical to understand events in the growing number of online news with multiple modalities including text, video, speech, etc. However, the events and entities depicting in different modalities may not be perfectly aligned and can be difficult to annotate, which makes the task especially challenging with little supervision available. To address the above issues, we propose a supervised model based on attention mechanism and an unsupervised model based on statistical machine translation, capable of learning the relative importance of modalities for event coreference resolution. Experiments on a video multimedia event dataset show that our multimodal models outperform text-only systems in event coreference resolution tasks. A careful analysis reveals that the performance gain of the multimodal model especially under unsupervised settings comes from better learning of visually salient events.

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Anatomy of OntoGUM—Adapting GUM to the OntoNotes Scheme to Evaluate Robustness of SOTA Coreference Algorithms
Yilun Zhu | Sameer Pradhan | Amir Zeldes

SOTA coreference resolution produces increasingly impressive scores on the OntoNotes benchmark. However lack of comparable data following the same scheme for more genres makes it difficult to evaluate generalizability to open domain data. Zhu et al. (2021) introduced the creation of the OntoGUM corpus for evaluating geralizability of the latest neural LM-based end-to-end systems. This paper covers details of the mapping process which is a set of deterministic rules applied to the rich syntactic and discourse annotations manually annotated in the GUM corpus. Out-of-domain evaluation across 12 genres shows nearly 15-20% degradation for both deterministic and deep learning systems, indicating a lack of generalizability or covert overfitting in existing coreference resolution models.

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Understanding Mention Detector-Linker Interaction in Neural Coreference Resolution
Zhaofeng Wu | Matt Gardner

Despite significant recent progress in coreference resolution, the quality of current state-of-the-art systems still considerably trails behind human-level performance. Using the CoNLL-2012 and PreCo datasets, we dissect the best instantiation of the mainstream end-to-end coreference resolution model that underlies most current best-performing coreference systems, and empirically analyze the behavior of its two components: mention detector and mention linker. While the detector traditionally focuses heavily on recall as a design decision, we demonstrate the importance of precision, calling for their balance. However, we point out the difficulty in building a precise detector due to its inability to make important anaphoricity decisions. We also highlight the enormous room for improving the linker and show that the rest of its errors mainly involve pronoun resolution. We propose promising next steps and hope our findings will help future research in coreference resolution.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Data Science with Human in the Loop: Language Advances

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Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Data Science with Human in the Loop: Language Advances
Eduard Dragut | Yunyao Li | Lucian Popa | Slobodan Vucetic

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Leveraging Wikipedia Navigational Templates for Curating Domain-Specific Fuzzy Conceptual Bases
Krati Saxena | Tushita Singh | Ashwini Patil | Sagar Sunkle | Vinay Kulkarni

Domain-specific conceptual bases use key concepts to capture domain scope and relevant information. Conceptual bases serve as a foundation for various downstream tasks, including ontology construction, information mapping, and analysis. However, building conceptual bases necessitates domain awareness and takes time. Wikipedia navigational templates offer multiple articles on the same/similar domain. It is possible to use the templates to recognize fundamental concepts that shape the domain. Earlier work in this domain used Wikipedia’s structured and unstructured data to construct open-domain ontologies, domain terminologies, and knowledge bases. We present a novel method for leveraging navigational templates to create domain-specific fuzzy conceptual bases in this work. Our system generates knowledge graphs from the articles mentioned in the template, which we then process using Wikidata and machine learning algorithms. We filter important concepts using fuzzy logic on network metrics to create a crude conceptual base. Finally, the expert helps by refining the conceptual base. We demonstrate our system using an example of RNA virus antiviral drugs.

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It is better to Verify: Semi-Supervised Learning with a human in the loop for large-scale NLU models
Verena Weber | Enrico Piovano | Melanie Bradford

When a NLU model is updated, new utter- ances must be annotated to be included for training. However, manual annotation is very costly. We evaluate a semi-supervised learning workflow with a human in the loop in a produc- tion environment. The previous NLU model predicts the annotation of the new utterances, a human then reviews the predicted annotation. Only when the NLU prediction is assessed as incorrect the utterance is sent for human anno- tation. Experimental results show that the pro- posed workflow boosts the performance of the NLU model while significantly reducing the annotation volume. Specifically, in our setup, we see improvements of up to 14.16% for a recall-based metric and up to 9.57% for a F1- score based metric, while reducing the annota- tion volume by 97% and overall cost by 60% for each iteration.

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ViziTex: Interactive Visual Sense-Making of Text Corpora
Natraj Raman | Sameena Shah | Tucker Balch | Manuela Veloso

Information visualization is critical to analytical reasoning and knowledge discovery. We present an interactive studio that integrates perceptive visualization techniques with powerful text analytics algorithms to assist humans in sense-making of large complex text corpora. The novel visual representations introduced here encode the features delivered by modern text mining models using advanced metaphors such as hypergraphs, nested topologies and tessellated planes. They enhance human-computer interaction experience for various tasks such as summarization, exploration, organization and labeling of documents. We demonstrate the ability of the visuals to surface the structure, relations and concepts from documents across different domains.

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A Visualization Approach for Rapid Labeling of Clinical Notes for Smoking Status Extraction
Saman Enayati | Ziyu Yang | Benjamin Lu | Slobodan Vucetic

Labeling is typically the most human-intensive step during the development of supervised learning models. In this paper, we propose a simple and easy-to-implement visualization approach that reduces cognitive load and increases the speed of text labeling. The approach is fine-tuned for task of extraction of patient smoking status from clinical notes. The proposed approach consists of the ordering of sentences that mention smoking, centering them at smoking tokens, and annotating to enhance informative parts of the text. Our experiments on clinical notes from the MIMIC-III clinical database demonstrate that our visualization approach enables human annotators to label sentences up to 3 times faster than with a baseline approach.

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Semi-supervised Interactive Intent Labeling
Saurav Sahay | Eda Okur | Nagib Hakim | Lama Nachman

Building the Natural Language Understanding (NLU) modules of task-oriented Spoken Dialogue Systems (SDS) involves a definition of intents and entities, collection of task-relevant data, annotating the data with intents and entities, and then repeating the same process over and over again for adding any functionality/enhancement to the SDS. In this work, we showcase an Intent Bulk Labeling system where SDS developers can interactively label and augment training data from unlabeled utterance corpora using advanced clustering and visual labeling methods. We extend the Deep Aligned Clustering work with a better backbone BERT model, explore techniques to select the seed data for labeling, and develop a data balancing method using an oversampling technique that utilizes paraphrasing models. We also look at the effect of data augmentation on the clustering process. Our results show that we can achieve over 10% gain in clustering accuracy on some datasets using the combination of the above techniques. Finally, we extract utterance embeddings from the clustering model and plot the data to interactively bulk label the samples, reducing the time and effort for data labeling of the whole dataset significantly.

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Human-In-The-LoopEntity Linking for Low Resource Domains
Jan-Christoph Klie | Richard Eckart de Castilho | Iryna Gurevych

Entity linking (EL) is concerned with disambiguating entity mentions in a text against knowledge bases (KB). To quickly annotate texts with EL even in low-resource domains and noisy text, we present a novel Human-In-The-Loop EL approach. We show that it greatly outperforms a strong baseline in simulation. In a user study, annotation time is reduced by 35 % compared to annotating without interactive support; users report that they strongly prefer our system over ones without. An open-source and ready-to-use implementation based on the text annotation platform is made available.

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Bridging Multi-disciplinary Collaboration Challenges in ML Development via Domain Knowledge Elicitation
Soya Park

Building a machine learning model in a sophisticated domain is a time-consuming process, partially due to the steep learning curve of domain knowledge for data scientists. We introduce Ziva, an interface for supporting domain knowledge from domain experts to data scientists in two ways: (1) a concept creation interface where domain experts extract important concept of the domain and (2) five kinds of justification elicitation interfaces that solicit elicitation how the domain concept are expressed in data instances.

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Active learning and negative evidence for language identification
Thomas Lippincott | Ben Van Durme

Language identification (LID), the task of determining the natural language of a given text, is an essential first step in most NLP pipelines. While generally a solved problem for documents of sufficient length and languages with ample training data, the proliferation of microblogs and other social media has made it increasingly common to encounter use-cases that *don’t* satisfy these conditions. In these situations, the fundamental difficulty is the lack of, and cost of gathering, labeled data: unlike some annotation tasks, no single “expert” can quickly and reliably identify more than a handful of languages. This leads to a natural question: can we gain useful information when annotators are only able to *rule out* languages for a given document, rather than supply a positive label? What are the optimal choices for gathering and representing such *negative evidence* as a model is trained? In this paper, we demonstrate that using negative evidence can improve the performance of a simple neural LID model. This improvement is sensitive to policies of how the evidence is represented in the loss function, and for deciding which annotators to employ given the instance and model state. We consider simple policies and report experimental results that indicate the optimal choices for this task. We conclude with a discussion of future work to determine if and how the results generalize to other classification tasks.

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Towards integrated, interactive, and extensible text data analytics with Leam
Peter Griggs | Cagatay Demiralp | Sajjadur Rahman

From tweets to product reviews, text is ubiquitous on the web and often contains valuable information for both enterprises and consumers. However, the online text is generally noisy and incomplete, requiring users to process and analyze the data to extract insights. While there are systems effective for different stages of text analysis, users lack extensible platforms to support interactive text analysis workflows end-to-end. To facilitate integrated text analytics, we introduce LEAM, which aims at combining the strengths of spreadsheets, computational notebooks, and interactive visualizations. LEAM supports interactive analysis via GUI-based interactions and provides a declarative specification language, implemented based on a visual text algebra, to enable user-guided analysis. We evaluate LEAM through two case studies using two popular Kaggle text analytics workflows to understand the strengths and weaknesses of the system.

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Data Cleaning Tools for Token Classification Tasks
Karthik Muthuraman | Frederick Reiss | Hong Xu | Bryan Cutler | Zachary Eichenberger

Human-in-the-loop systems for cleaning NLP training data rely on automated sieves to isolate potentially-incorrect labels for manual review. We have developed a novel technique for flagging potentially-incorrect labels with high sensitivity in named entity recognition corpora. We incorporated our sieve into an end-to-end system for cleaning NLP corpora, implemented as a modular collection of Jupyter notebooks built on extensions to the Pandas DataFrame library. We used this system to identify incorrect labels in the CoNLL-2003 corpus for English-language named entity recognition (NER), one of the most influential corpora for NER model research. Unlike previous work that only looked at a subset of the corpus’s validation fold, our automated sieve enabled us to examine the entire corpus in depth. Across the entire CoNLL-2003 corpus, we identified over 1300 incorrect labels (out of 35089 in the corpus). We have published our corrections, along with the code we used in our experiments. We are developing a repeatable version of the process we used on the CoNLL-2003 corpus as an open-source library.

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Building Low-Resource NER Models Using Non-Speaker Annotations
Tatiana Tsygankova | Francesca Marini | Stephen Mayhew | Dan Roth

In low-resource natural language processing (NLP), the key problems are a lack of target language training data, and a lack of native speakers to create it. Cross-lingual methods have had notable success in addressing these concerns, but in certain common circumstances, such as insufficient pre-training corpora or languages far from the source language, their performance suffers. In this work we propose a complementary approach to building low-resource Named Entity Recognition (NER) models using “non-speaker” (NS) annotations, provided by annotators with no prior experience in the target language. We recruit 30 participants in a carefully controlled annotation experiment with Indonesian, Russian, and Hindi. We show that use of NS annotators produces results that are consistently on par or better than cross-lingual methods built on modern contextual representations, and have the potential to outperform with additional effort. We conclude with observations of common annotation patterns and recommended implementation practices, and motivate how NS annotations can be used in addition to prior methods for improved performance.

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Evaluating and Explaining Natural Language Generation with GenX
Kayla Duskin | Shivam Sharma | Ji Young Yun | Emily Saldanha | Dustin Arendt

Current methods for evaluation of natural language generation models focus on measuring text quality but fail to probe the model creativity, i.e., its ability to generate novel but coherent text sequences not seen in the training corpus. We present the GenX tool which is designed to enable interactive exploration and explanation of natural language generation outputs with a focus on the detection of memorization. We demonstrate the utility of the tool on two domain-conditioned generation use cases - phishing emails and ACL abstracts.

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CrossCheck: Rapid, Reproducible, and Interpretable Model Evaluation
Dustin Arendt | Zhuanyi Shaw | Prasha Shrestha | Ellyn Ayton | Maria Glenski | Svitlana Volkova

Evaluation beyond aggregate performance metrics, e.g. F1-score, is crucial to both establish an appropriate level of trust in machine learning models and identify avenues for future model improvements. In this paper we demonstrate CrossCheck, an interactive capability for rapid cross-model comparison and reproducible error analysis. We describe the tool, discuss design and implementation details, and present three NLP use cases – named entity recognition, reading comprehension, and clickbait detection that show the benefits of using the tool for model evaluation. CrossCheck enables users to make informed decisions when choosing between multiple models, identify when the models are correct and for which examples, investigate whether the models are making the same mistakes as humans, evaluate models’ generalizability and highlight models’ limitations, strengths and weaknesses. Furthermore, CrossCheck is implemented as a Jupyter widget, which allows for rapid and convenient integration into existing model development workflows.

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TopGuNN: Fast NLP Training Data Augmentation using Large Corpora
Rebecca Iglesias-Flores | Megha Mishra | Ajay Patel | Akanksha Malhotra | Reno Kriz | Martha Palmer | Chris Callison-Burch

Acquiring training data for natural language processing systems can be expensive and time-consuming. Given a few training examples crafted by experts, large corpora can be mined for thousands of semantically similar examples that provide useful variability to improve model generalization. We present TopGuNN, a fast contextualized k-NN retrieval system that can efficiently index and search over contextual embeddings generated from large corpora. TopGuNN is demonstrated for a training data augmentation use case over the Gigaword corpus. Using approximate k-NN and an efficient architecture, TopGuNN performs queries over an embedding space of 4.63TB (approximately 1.5B embeddings) in less than a day.

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Everyday Living Artificial Intelligence Hub
Raymond Finzel | Esha Singh | Martin Michalowski | Maria Gini | Serguei Pakhomov

We present the Everyday Living Artificial Intelligence (AI) Hub, a novel proof-of-concept framework for enhancing human health and wellbeing via a combination of tailored wear-able and Conversational Agent (CA) solutions for non-invasive monitoring of physiological signals, assessment of behaviors through unobtrusive wearable devices, and the provision of personalized interventions to reduce stress and anxiety. We utilize recent advancements and industry standards in the Internet of Things (IoT)and AI technologies to develop this proof-of-concept framework.

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A Computational Model for Interactive Transcription
William Lane | Mat Bettinson | Steven Bird

Transcribing low resource languages can be challenging in the absence of a good lexicon and trained transcribers. Accordingly, we seek a way to enable interactive transcription whereby the machine amplifies human efforts. This paper presents a data model and a system architecture for interactive transcription, supporting multiple modes of interactivity, increasing the likelihood of finding tasks that engage local participation in language work. The approach also supports other applications which are useful in our context, including spoken document retrieval and language learning.
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bib (full) Proceedings of Deep Learning Inside Out (DeeLIO): The 2nd Workshop on Knowledge Extraction and Integration for Deep Learning Architectures

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Proceedings of Deep Learning Inside Out (DeeLIO): The 2nd Workshop on Knowledge Extraction and Integration for Deep Learning Architectures
Eneko Agirre | Marianna Apidianaki | Ivan Vulić

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Transformer visualization via dictionary learning: contextualized embedding as a linear superposition of transformer factors
Zeyu Yun | Yubei Chen | Bruno Olshausen | Yann LeCun

Transformer networks have revolutionized NLP representation learning since they were introduced. Though a great effort has been made to explain the representation in transformers, it is widely recognized that our understanding is not sufficient. One important reason is that there lack enough visualization tools for detailed analysis. In this paper, we propose to use dictionary learning to open up these ‘black boxes’ as linear superpositions of transformer factors. Through visualization, we demonstrate the hierarchical semantic structures captured by the transformer factors, e.g., word-level polysemy disambiguation, sentence-level pattern formation, and long-range dependency. While some of these patterns confirm the conventional prior linguistic knowledge, the rest are relatively unexpected, which may provide new insights. We hope this visualization tool can bring further knowledge and a better understanding of how transformer networks work. The code is available at: https://github.com/zeyuyun1/TransformerVis.

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Reconstructing Implicit Knowledge with Language Models
Maria Becker | Siting Liang | Anette Frank

In this work we propose an approach for generating statements that explicate implicit knowledge connecting sentences in text. We make use of pre-trained language models which we refine by fine-tuning them on specifically prepared corpora that we enriched with implicit information, and by constraining them with relevant concepts and connecting commonsense knowledge paths. Manual and automatic evaluation of the generations shows that by refining language models as proposed, we can generate coherent and grammatically sound sentences that explicate implicit knowledge which connects sentence pairs in texts – on both in-domain and out-of-domain test data.

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Investigating the Effect of Background Knowledge on Natural Questions
Vidhisha Balachandran | Bhuwan Dhingra | Haitian Sun | Michael Collins | William Cohen

Existing work shows the benefits of integrating KBs with textual evidence for QA only on questions that are answerable by KBs alone (Sun et al., 2019). In contrast, real world QA systems often have to deal with questions that might not be directly answerable by KBs. Here, we investigate the effect of integrating background knowledge from KBs for the Natural Questions (NQ) task. We create a subset of the NQ data, Factual Questions (FQ), where the questions have evidence in the KB in the form of paths that link question entities to answer entities but still must be answered using text, to facilitate further research into KB integration methods. We propose and analyze a simple, model-agnostic approach for incorporating KB paths into text-based QA systems and establish a strong upper bound on FQ for our method using an oracle retriever. We show that several variants of Personalized PageRank based fact retrievers lead to a low recall of answer entities and consequently fail to improve QA performance. Our results suggest that fact retrieval is a bottleneck for integrating KBs into real world QA datasets

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Augmenting Topic Aware Knowledge-Grounded Conversations with Dynamic Built Knowledge Graphs
Junjie Wu | Hao Zhou

Dialog topic management and background knowledge selection are essential factors for the success of knowledge-grounded open-domain conversations. However, existing models are primarily performed with symmetric knowledge bases or stylized with pre-defined roles between conversational partners, while people usually have their own knowledge before a real chit-chat. To address this problem, we propose a dynamic knowledge graph-based topical conversation model (DKGT). Given a dialog history context, our model first builds knowledge graphs from the context as an imitation of human’s ability to form logical relationships between known and unknown topics during a conversation. This logical information will be fed into a topic predictor to promote topic management, then facilitate background knowledge selection and response generation. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first attempt to dynamically form knowledge graphs between chatting topics to assist dialog topic management during a conversation. Experimental results manifest that our model can properly schedule conversational topics and pick suitable knowledge to generate informative responses comparing to several strong baselines.

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What Makes My Model Perplexed? A Linguistic Investigation on Neural Language Models Perplexity
Alessio Miaschi | Dominique Brunato | Felice Dell’Orletta | Giulia Venturi

This paper presents an investigation aimed at studying how the linguistic structure of a sentence affects the perplexity of two of the most popular Neural Language Models (NLMs), BERT and GPT-2. We first compare the sentence-level likelihood computed with BERT and the GPT-2’s perplexity showing that the two metrics are correlated. In addition, we exploit linguistic features capturing a wide set of morpho-syntactic and syntactic phenomena showing how they contribute to predict the perplexity of the two NLMs.

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How Do BERT Embeddings Organize Linguistic Knowledge?
Giovanni Puccetti | Alessio Miaschi | Felice Dell’Orletta

Several studies investigated the linguistic information implicitly encoded in Neural Language Models. Most of these works focused on quantifying the amount and type of information available within their internal representations and across their layers. In line with this scenario, we proposed a different study, based on Lasso regression, aimed at understanding how the information encoded by BERT sentence-level representations is arrange within its hidden units. Using a suite of several probing tasks, we showed the existence of a relationship between the implicit knowledge learned by the model and the number of individual units involved in the encodings of this competence. Moreover, we found that it is possible to identify groups of hidden units more relevant for specific linguistic properties.

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ERNIE-NLI: Analyzing the Impact of Domain-Specific External Knowledge on Enhanced Representations for NLI
Lisa Bauer | Lingjia Deng | Mohit Bansal

We examine the effect of domain-specific external knowledge variations on deep large scale language model performance. Recent work in enhancing BERT with external knowledge has been very popular, resulting in models such as ERNIE (Zhang et al., 2019a). Using the ERNIE architecture, we provide a detailed analysis on the types of knowledge that result in a performance increase on the Natural Language Inference (NLI) task, specifically on the Multi-Genre Natural Language Inference Corpus (MNLI). While ERNIE uses general TransE embeddings, we instead train domain-specific knowledge embeddings and insert this knowledge via an information fusion layer in the ERNIE architecture, allowing us to directly control and analyze knowledge input. Using several different knowledge training objectives, sources of knowledge, and knowledge ablations, we find a strong correlation between knowledge and classification labels within the same polarity, illustrating that knowledge polarity is an important feature in predicting entailment. We also perform classification change analysis across different knowledge variations to illustrate the importance of selecting appropriate knowledge input regarding content and polarity, and show representative examples of these changes.

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Enhancing Multiple-Choice Question Answering with Causal Knowledge
Dhairya Dalal | Mihael Arcan | Paul Buitelaar

The task of causal question answering aims to reason about causes and effects over a provided real or hypothetical premise. Recent approaches have converged on using transformer-based language models to solve question answering tasks. However, pretrained language models often struggle when external knowledge is not present in the premise or when additional context is required to answer the question. To the best of our knowledge, no prior work has explored the efficacy of augmenting pretrained language models with external causal knowledge for multiple-choice causal question answering. In this paper, we present novel strategies for the representation of causal knowledge. Our empirical results demonstrate the efficacy of augmenting pretrained models with external causal knowledge. We show improved performance on the COPA (Choice of Plausible Alternatives) and WIQA (What If Reasoning Over Procedural Text) benchmark tasks. On the WIQA benchmark, our approach is competitive with the state-of-the-art and exceeds it within the evaluation subcategories of In-Paragraph and Out-of-Paragraph perturbations.

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Low Anisotropy Sense Retrofitting (LASeR) : Towards Isotropic and Sense Enriched Representations
Geetanjali Bihani | Julia Rayz

Contextual word representation models have shown massive improvements on a multitude of NLP tasks, yet their word sense disambiguation capabilities remain poorly explained. To address this gap, we assess whether contextual word representations extracted from deep pretrained language models create distinguishable representations for different senses of a given word. We analyze the representation geometry and find that most layers of deep pretrained language models create highly anisotropic representations, pointing towards the existence of representation degeneration problem in contextual word representations. After accounting for anisotropy, our study further reveals that there is variability in sense learning capabilities across different language models. Finally, we propose LASeR, a ‘Low Anisotropy Sense Retrofitting’ approach that renders off-the-shelf representations isotropic and semantically more meaningful, resolving the representation degeneration problem as a post-processing step, and conducting sense-enrichment of contextualized representations extracted from deep neural language models.

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KW-ATTN: Knowledge Infused Attention for Accurate and Interpretable Text Classification
Hyeju Jang | Seojin Bang | Wen Xiao | Giuseppe Carenini | Raymond Ng | Young ji Lee

Text classification has wide-ranging applications in various domains. While neural network approaches have drastically advanced performance in text classification, they tend to be powered by a large amount of training data, and interpretability is often an issue. As a step towards better accuracy and interpretability especially on small data, in this paper we present a new knowledge-infused attention mechanism, called KW-ATTN (KnoWledge-infused ATTentioN) to incorporate high-level concepts from external knowledge bases into Neural Network models. We show that KW-ATTN outperforms baseline models using only words as well as other approaches using concepts by classification accuracy, which indicates that high-level concepts help model prediction. Furthermore, crowdsourced human evaluation suggests that additional concept information helps interpretability of the model.

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Multi-input Recurrent Independent Mechanisms for leveraging knowledge sources: Case studies on sentiment analysis and health text mining
Parsa Bagherzadeh | Sabine Bergler

This paper presents a way to inject and leverage existing knowledge from external sources in a Deep Learning environment, extending the recently proposed Recurrent Independent Mechnisms (RIMs) architecture, which comprises a set of interacting yet independent modules. We show that this extension of the RIMs architecture is an effective framework with lower parameter implications compared to purely fine-tuned systems.

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What BERTs and GPTs know about your brand? Probing contextual language models for affect associations
Vivek Srivastava | Stephen Pilli | Savita Bhat | Niranjan Pedanekar | Shirish Karande

Investigating brand perception is fundamental to marketing strategies. In this regard, brand image, defined by a set of attributes (Aaker, 1997), is recognized as a key element in indicating how a brand is perceived by various stakeholders such as consumers and competitors. Traditional approaches (e.g., surveys) to monitor brand perceptions are time-consuming and inefficient. In the era of digital marketing, both brand managers and consumers engage with a vast amount of digital marketing content. The exponential growth of digital content has propelled the emergence of pre-trained language models such as BERT and GPT as essential tools in solving myriads of challenges with textual data. This paper seeks to investigate the extent of brand perceptions (i.e., brand and image attribute associations) these language models encode. We believe that any kind of bias for a brand and attribute pair may influence customer-centric downstream tasks such as recommender systems, sentiment analysis, and question-answering, e.g., suggesting a specific brand consistently when queried for innovative products. We use synthetic data and real-life data and report comparison results for five contextual LMs, viz. BERT, RoBERTa, DistilBERT, ALBERT and BART.

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Attention vs non-attention for a Shapley-based explanation method
Tom Kersten | Hugh Mee Wong | Jaap Jumelet | Dieuwke Hupkes

The field of explainable AI has recently seen an explosion in the number of explanation methods for highly non-linear deep neural networks. The extent to which such methods – that are often proposed and tested in the domain of computer vision – are appropriate to address the explainability challenges in NLP is yet relatively unexplored. In this work, we consider Contextual Decomposition (CD) – a Shapley-based input feature attribution method that has been shown to work well for recurrent NLP models – and we test the extent to which it is useful for models that contain attention operations. To this end, we extend CD to cover the operations necessary for attention-based models. We then compare how long distance subject-verb relationships are processed by models with and without attention, considering a number of different syntactic structures in two different languages: English and Dutch. Our experiments confirm that CD can successfully be applied for attention-based models as well, providing an alternative Shapley-based attribution method for modern neural networks. In particular, using CD, we show that the English and Dutch models demonstrate similar processing behaviour, but that under the hood there are consistent differences between our attention and non-attention models.

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Predicting Numerals in Natural Language Text Using a Language Model Considering the Quantitative Aspects of Numerals
Taku Sakamoto | Akiko Aizawa

Numerical common sense (NCS) is necessary to fully understand natural language text that includes numerals. NCS is knowledge about the numerical features of objects in text, such as size, weight, or color. Existing neural language models treat numerals in a text as string tokens in the same way as other words. Therefore, they cannot reflect the quantitative aspects of numerals in the training process, making it difficult to learn NCS. In this paper, we measure the NCS acquired by existing neural language models using a masked numeral prediction task as an evaluation task. In this task, we use two evaluation metrics to evaluate the language models in terms of the symbolic and quantitative aspects of the numerals, respectively. We also propose methods to reflect not only the symbolic aspect but also the quantitative aspect of numerals in the training of language models, using a loss function that depends on the magnitudes of the numerals and a regression model for the masked numeral prediction task. Finally, we quantitatively evaluate our proposed approaches on four datasets with different properties using the two metrics. Compared with methods that use existing language models, the proposed methods reduce numerical absolute errors, although exact match accuracy was reduced. This result confirms that the proposed methods, which use the magnitudes of the numerals for model training, are an effective way for models to capture NCS.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Document-grounded Dialogue and Conversational Question Answering (DialDoc 2021)

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Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Document-grounded Dialogue and Conversational Question Answering (DialDoc 2021)
Song Feng | Siva Reddy | Malihe Alikhani | He He | Yangfeng Ji | Mohit Iyyer | Zhou Yu

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DialDoc 2021 Shared Task: Goal-Oriented Document-grounded Dialogue Modeling
Song Feng

We present the results of Shared Task at Workshop DialDoc 2021 that is focused on document-grounded dialogue and conversational question answering. The primary goal of this Shared Task is to build goal-oriented information-seeking conversation systems that can identify the most relevant knowledge in the associated document for generating agent responses in natural language. It includes two subtasks on predicting agent responses: the first subtask is to predict the grounding text span in the given document for next agent response; the second subtask is to generate agent response in natural language given the context. Many submissions outperform baseline significantly. For the first task, the best-performing system achieved 67.1 Exact Match and 76.3 F1. For the second subtask, the best system achieved 41.1 SacreBLEU and highest rank by human evaluation.

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SeqDialN: Sequential Visual Dialog Network in Joint Visual-Linguistic Representation Space
Liu Yang | Fanqi Meng | Xiao Liu | Ming-Kuang Daniel Wu | Vicent Ying | James Xu

The key challenge of the visual dialog task is how to fuse features from multimodal sources and extract relevant information from dialog history to answer the current query. In this work, we formulate a visual dialog as an information flow in which each piece of information is encoded with the joint visual-linguistic representation of a single dialog round. Based on this formulation, we consider the visual dialog task as a sequence problem consisting of ordered visual-linguistic vectors. For featurization, we use a Dense SymmetricCo-Attention network (Nguyen and Okatani,2018) as a lightweight vison-language joint representation generator to fuse multimodal features (i.e., image and text), yielding better computation and data efficiencies. For inference, we propose two Sequential Dialog Networks (SeqDialN): the first uses LSTM(Hochreiter and Schmidhuber,1997) for information propagation (IP) and the second uses a modified Transformer (Vaswani et al.,2017) for multi-step reasoning (MR). Our architecture separates the complexity of multimodal feature fusion from that of inference, which allows simpler design of the inference engine. On VisDial v1.0 test-std dataset, our best single generative SeqDialN achieves 62.54% NDCG and 48.63% MRR; our ensemble generative SeqDialN achieves 63.78% NDCG and 49.98% MRR, which set a new state-of-the-art generative visual dialog model. We fine-tune discriminative SeqDialN with dense annotations and boost the performance up to 72.41% NDCG and 55.11% MRR. In this work, we discuss the extensive experiments we have conducted to demonstrate the effectiveness of our model components. We also provide visualization for the reasoning process from the relevant conversation rounds and discuss our fine-tuning methods. The code is available at https://github.com/xiaoxiaoheimei/SeqDialN.

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A Template-guided Hybrid Pointer Network for Knowledge-based Task-oriented Dialogue Systems
Dingmin Wang | Ziyao Chen | Wanwei He | Li Zhong | Yunzhe Tao | Min Yang

Most existing neural network based task-oriented dialog systems follow encoder-decoder paradigm, where the decoder purely depends on the source texts to generate a sequence of words, usually suffering from instability and poor readability. Inspired by the traditional template-based generation approaches, we propose a template-guided hybrid pointer network for knowledge-based task-oriented dialog systems, which retrieves several potentially relevant answers from a pre-constructed domain-specific conversational repository as guidance answers, and incorporates the guidance answers into both the encoding and decoding processes. Specifically, we design a memory pointer network model with a gating mechanism to fully exploit the semantic correlation between the retrieved answers and the ground-truth response. We evaluate our model on four widely used task-oriented datasets, including one simulated and three manually created datasets. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed model achieves significantly better performance than the state-of-the-art methods over different automatic evaluation metrics.

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Automatic Learning Assistant in Telugu
Meghana Bommadi | Shreya Terupally | Radhika Mamidi

This paper presents a learning assistant that tests one’s knowledge and gives feedback that helps a person learn at a faster pace. A learning assistant (based on automated question generation) has extensive uses in education, information websites, self-assessment, FAQs, testing ML agents, research, etc. Multiple researchers, and companies have worked on Virtual Assistance, but majorly in English. We built our learning assistant for Telugu language to help with teaching in the mother tongue, which is the most efficient way of learning. Our system is built primarily based on Question Generation in Telugu. Many experiments were conducted on Question Generation in English in multiple ways. We have built the first hybrid machine learning and rule-based solution in Telugu, which proves efficient for short stories or short passages in children’s books. Our work covers the fundamental question forms with question types: adjective, yes/no, adverb, verb, when, where, whose, quotative, and quantitative (how many/how much). We constructed rules for question generation using Part of Speech (POS) tags and Universal Dependency (UD) tags along with linguistic information of the surrounding relevant context of the word. We used keyword matching, multilingual sentence embedding to evaluate the answer. Our system is primarily built on question generation in Telugu, and is also capable of evaluating the user’s answers to the generated questions.

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Combining Open Domain Question Answering with a Task-Oriented Dialog System
Jan Nehring | Nils Feldhus | Harleen Kaur | Akhyar Ahmed

We apply the modular dialog system framework to combine open-domain question answering with a task-oriented dialog system. This meta dialog system can answer questions from Wikipedia and at the same time act as a personal assistant. The aim of this system is to combine the strength of an open-domain question answering system with the conversational power of task-oriented dialog systems. After explaining the technical details of the system, we combined a new dataset out of standard datasets to evaluate the system. We further introduce an evaluation method for this system. Using this method, we compare the performance of the non-modular system with the performance of the modular system and show that the modular dialog system framework is very suitable for this combination of conversational agents and that the performance of each agent decreases only marginally through the modular setting.

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CAiRE in DialDoc21: Data Augmentation for Information Seeking Dialogue System
Yan Xu | Etsuko Ishii | Genta Indra Winata | Zhaojiang Lin | Andrea Madotto | Zihan Liu | Peng Xu | Pascale Fung

Information-seeking dialogue systems, including knowledge identification and response generation, aim to respond to users with fluent, coherent, and informative responses based on users’ needs, which. To tackle this challenge, we utilize data augmentation methods and several training techniques with the pre-trained language models to learn a general pattern of the task and thus achieve promising performance. In DialDoc21 competition, our system achieved 74.95 F1 score and 60.74 Exact Match score in subtask 1, and 37.72 SacreBLEU score in subtask 2. Empirical analysis is provided to explain the effectiveness of our approaches.

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Technical Report on Shared Task in DialDoc21
Jiapeng Li | Mingda Li | Longxuan Ma | Wei-Nan Zhang | Ting Liu

We participate in the DialDoc Shared Task sub-task 1 (Knowledge Identification). The task requires identifying the grounding knowledge in form of a document span for the next dialogue turn. We employ two well-known pre-trained language models (RoBERTa and ELECTRA) to identify candidate document spans and propose a metric-based ensemble method for span selection. Our methods include data augmentation, model pre-training/fine-tuning, post-processing, and ensemble. On the submission page, we rank 2nd based on the average of normalized F1 and EM scores used for the final evaluation. Specifically, we rank 2nd on EM and 3rd on F1.

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Cascaded Span Extraction and Response Generation for Document-Grounded Dialog
Nico Daheim | David Thulke | Christian Dugast | Hermann Ney

This paper summarizes our entries to both subtasks of the first DialDoc shared task which focuses on the agent response prediction task in goal-oriented document-grounded dialogs. The task is split into two subtasks: predicting a span in a document that grounds an agent turn and generating an agent response based on a dialog and grounding document. In the first subtask, we restrict the set of valid spans to the ones defined in the dataset, use a biaffine classifier to model spans, and finally use an ensemble of different models. For the second sub-task, we use a cascaded model which grounds the response prediction on the predicted span instead of the full document. With these approaches, we obtain significant improvements in both subtasks compared to the baseline.

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Ensemble ALBERT and RoBERTa for Span Prediction in Question Answering
Sony Bachina | Spandana Balumuri | Sowmya Kamath S

Retrieving relevant answers from heterogeneous data formats, for given for questions, is a challenging problem. The process of pinpointing relevant information suitable to answer a question is further compounded in large document collections containing documents of substantial length. This paper presents the models designed as part of our submission to the DialDoc21 Shared Task (Document-grounded Dialogue and Conversational Question Answering) for span prediction in question answering. The proposed models leverage the superior predictive power of pretrained transformer models like RoBERTa, ALBERT and ELECTRA, to identify the most relevant information in an associated passage for the next agent turn. To further enhance the performance, the models were fine-tuned on different span selection based question answering datasets like SQuAD2.0 and Natural Questions (NQ) corpus. We also explored ensemble techniques for combining multiple models to achieve enhanced performance for the task. Our team SB_NITK ranked 6th on the leaderboard for the Knowledge Identification task, and our best ensemble model achieved an Exact score of 58.58 and an F1 score of 73.39.

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[RETRACTED] WeaSuL: Weakly Supervised Dialogue Policy Learning: Reward Estimation for Multi-turn Dialogue
Anant Khandelwal

An intelligent dialogue system in a multi-turn setting should not only generate the responses which are of good quality, but it should also generate the responses which can lead to long-term success of the dialogue. Although, the current approaches improved the response quality, but they over-look the training signals present in the dialogue data. We can leverage these signals to generate the weakly supervised training data for learning dialog policy and reward estimator, and make the policy take actions (generates responses) which can foresee the future direction for a successful (rewarding) conversation. We simulate the dialogue between an agent and a user (modelled similar to an agent with supervised learning objective) to interact with each other. The agent uses dynamic blocking to generate ranked diverse responses and exploration-exploitation to select among the Top-K responses. Each simulated state-action pair is evaluated (works as a weak annotation) with three quality modules: Semantic Relevant, Semantic Coherence and Consistent Flow. Empirical studies with two benchmarks indicate that our model can significantly out-perform the response quality and lead to a successful conversation on both automatic evaluation and human judgment.

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Summary-Oriented Question Generation for Informational Queries
Xusen Yin | Li Zhou | Kevin Small | Jonathan May

Users frequently ask simple factoid questions for question answering (QA) systems, attenuating the impact of myriad recent works that support more complex questions. Prompting users with automatically generated suggested questions (SQs) can improve user understanding of QA system capabilities and thus facilitate more effective use. We aim to produce self-explanatory questions that focus on main document topics and are answerable with variable length passages as appropriate. We satisfy these requirements by using a BERT-based Pointer-Generator Network trained on the Natural Questions (NQ) dataset. Our model shows SOTA performance of SQ generation on the NQ dataset (20.1 BLEU-4). We further apply our model on out-of-domain news articles, evaluating with a QA system due to the lack of gold questions and demonstrate that our model produces better SQs for news articles – with further confirmation via a human evaluation.

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Document-Grounded Goal-Oriented Dialogue Systems on Pre-Trained Language Model with Diverse Input Representation
Boeun Kim | Dohaeng Lee | Sihyung Kim | Yejin Lee | Jin-Xia Huang | Oh-Woog Kwon | Harksoo Kim

Document-grounded goal-oriented dialog system understands users’ utterances, and generates proper responses by using information obtained from documents. The Dialdoc21 shared task consists of two subtasks; subtask1, finding text spans associated with users’ utterances from documents, and subtask2, generating responses based on information obtained from subtask1. In this paper, we propose two models (i.e., a knowledge span prediction model and a response generation model) for the subtask1 and the subtask2. In the subtask1, dialogue act losses are used with RoBERTa, and title embeddings are added to input representation of RoBERTa. In the subtask2, various special tokens and embeddings are added to input representation of BART’s encoder. Then, we propose a method to assign different difficulty scores to leverage curriculum learning. In the subtask1, our span prediction model achieved F1-scores of 74.81 (ranked at top 7) and 73.41 (ranked at top 5) in test-dev phase and test phase, respectively. In the subtask2, our response generation model achieved sacreBLEUs of 37.50 (ranked at top 3) and 41.06 (ranked at top 1) in in test-dev phase and test phase, respectively.

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Team JARS: DialDoc Subtask 1 - Improved Knowledge Identification with Supervised Out-of-Domain Pretraining
Sopan Khosla | Justin Lovelace | Ritam Dutt | Adithya Pratapa

In this paper, we discuss our submission for DialDoc subtask 1. The subtask requires systems to extract knowledge from FAQ-type documents vital to reply to a user’s query in a conversational setting. We experiment with pretraining a BERT-based question-answering model on different QA datasets from MRQA, as well as conversational QA datasets like CoQA and QuAC. Our results show that models pretrained on CoQA and QuAC perform better than their counterparts that are pretrained on MRQA datasets. Our results also indicate that adding more pretraining data does not necessarily result in improved performance. Our final model, which is an ensemble of AlBERT-XL pretrained on CoQA and QuAC independently, with the chosen answer having the highest average probability score, achieves an F1-Score of 70.9% on the official test-set.

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Building Goal-oriented Document-grounded Dialogue Systems
Xi Chen | Faner Lin | Yeju Zhou | Kaixin Ma | Jonathan Francis | Eric Nyberg | Alessandro Oltramari

In this paper, we describe our systems for solving the two Doc2Dial shared task: knowledge identification and response generation. We proposed several pre-processing and post-processing methods, and we experimented with data augmentation by pre-training the models on other relevant datasets. Our best model for knowledge identification outperformed the baseline by 10.5+ f1-score on the test-dev split, and our best model for response generation outperformed the baseline by 11+ Sacrebleu score on the test-dev split.

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Agenda Pushing in Email to Thwart Phishing
Hyundong Cho | Genevieve Bartlett | Marjorie Freedman

In this work, we draw parallels between automatically responding to emails for combating social-engineering attacks and document-grounded response generation and lay out the blueprint of our approach. Phishing emails are longer than dialogue utterances and often contain multiple intents. Hence, we need to make decisions similar to those for document-grounded responses in deciding what parts of long text to use and how to address each intent to generate a knowledgeable multi-component response that pushes scammers towards agendas that aid in attribution and linking attacks. We propose , a hybrid system that uses customizable probabilistic finite state transducers to orchestrate pushing agendas coupled with neural dialogue systems that generate responses to unexpected prompts, as a promising solution to this end. We emphasize the need for this system by highlighting each component’s strengths and weaknesses and show how they complement each other.

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Can I Be of Further Assistance? Using Unstructured Knowledge Access to Improve Task-oriented Conversational Modeling
Di Jin | Seokhwan Kim | Dilek Hakkani-Tur

Most prior work on task-oriented dialogue systems are restricted to limited coverage of domain APIs. However, users oftentimes have requests that are out of the scope of these APIs. This work focuses on responding to these beyond-API-coverage user turns by incorporating external, unstructured knowledge sources. Our approach works in a pipelined manner with knowledge-seeking turn detection, knowledge selection, and response generation in sequence. We introduce novel data augmentation methods for the first two steps and demonstrate that the use of information extracted from dialogue context improves the knowledge selection and end-to-end performances. Through experiments, we achieve state-of-the-art performance for both automatic and human evaluation metrics on the DSTC9 Track 1 benchmark dataset, validating the effectiveness of our contributions.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 2nd Shared Task on Discourse Relation Parsing and Treebanking (DISRPT 2021)

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Proceedings of the 2nd Shared Task on Discourse Relation Parsing and Treebanking (DISRPT 2021)
Amir Zeldes | Yang Janet Liu | Mikel Iruskieta | Philippe Muller | Chloé Braud | Sonia Badene

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The DISRPT 2021 Shared Task on Elementary Discourse Unit Segmentation, Connective Detection, and Relation Classification
Amir Zeldes | Yang Janet Liu | Mikel Iruskieta | Philippe Muller | Chloé Braud | Sonia Badene

In 2021, we organized the second iteration of a shared task dedicated to the underlying units used in discourse parsing across formalisms: the DISRPT Shared Task (Discourse Relation Parsing and Treebanking). Adding to the 2019 tasks on Elementary Discourse Unit Segmentation and Connective Detection, this iteration of the Shared Task included for the first time a track on discourse relation classification across three formalisms: RST, SDRT, and PDTB. In this paper we review the data included in the Shared Task, which covers nearly 3 million manually annotated tokens from 16 datasets in 11 languages, survey and compare submitted systems and report on system performance on each task for both annotated and plain-tokenized versions of the data.

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A Transformer Based Approach towards Identification of Discourse Unit Segments and Connectives
Sahil Bakshi | Dipti Sharma

Discourse parsing, which involves understanding the structure, information flow, and modeling the coherence of a given text, is an important task in natural language processing. It forms the basis of several natural language processing tasks such as question-answering, text summarization, and sentiment analysis. Discourse unit segmentation is one of the fundamental tasks in discourse parsing and refers to identifying the elementary units of text that combine to form a coherent text. In this paper, we present a transformer based approach towards the automated identification of discourse unit segments and connectives. Early approaches towards segmentation relied on rule-based systems using POS tags and other syntactic information to identify discourse segments. Recently, transformer based neural systems have shown promising results in this domain. Our system, SegFormers, employs this transformer based approach to perform multilingual discourse segmentation and connective identification across 16 datasets encompassing 11 languages and 3 different annotation frameworks. We evaluate the system based on F1 scores for both tasks, with the best system reporting the highest F1 score of 97.02% for the treebanked English RST-DT dataset.

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Multi-lingual Discourse Segmentation and Connective Identification: MELODI at Disrpt2021
Morteza Kamaladdini Ezzabady | Philippe Muller | Chloé Braud

We present an approach for discourse segmentation and discourse connective identification, both at the sentence and document level, within the Disrpt 2021 shared task, a multi-lingual and multi-formalism evaluation campaign. Building on the most successful architecture from the 2019 similar shared task, we leverage datasets in the same or similar languages to augment training data and improve on the best systems from the previous campaign on 3 out of 4 subtasks, with a mean improvement on all 16 datasets of 0.85%. Within the Disrpt 21 campaign the system ranks 3rd overall, very close to the 2nd system, but with a significant gap with respect to the best system, which uses a rich set of additional features. The system is nonetheless the best on languages that benefited from crosslingual training on sentence internal segmentation (German and Spanish).

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Delexicalised Multilingual Discourse Segmentation for DISRPT 2021 and Tense, Mood, Voice and Modality Tagging for 11 Languages
Tillmann Dönicke

This paper describes our participating system for the Shared Task on Discourse Segmentation and Connective Identification across Formalisms and Languages. Key features of the presented approach are the formulation as a clause-level classification task, a language-independent feature inventory based on Universal Dependencies grammar, and composite-verb-form analysis. The achieved F1 is 92% for German and English and lower for other languages. The paper also presents a clause-level tagger for grammatical tense, aspect, mood, voice and modality in 11 languages.

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A Unified Approach to Discourse Relation Classification in nine Languages
Hanna Varachkina | Franziska Pannach

This paper presents efforts to solve the shared task on discourse relation classification (disrpt task 3). The intricate prediction task aims to predict a large number of classes from the Rhetorical Structure Theory (RST) framework for nine target languages. Labels include discourse relations such as background, condition, contrast and elaboration. We present an approach using euclidean distance between sentence embeddings that were extracted using multlingual sentence BERT (sBERT) and directionality as features. The data was combined into five classes which were used for initial prediction. The second classification step predicts the target classes. We observe a substantial difference in results depending on the number of occurrences of the target label in the training data. We achieve the best results on Chinese, where our system achieves 70 % accuracy on 20 labels.

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DisCoDisCo at the DISRPT2021 Shared Task: A System for Discourse Segmentation, Classification, and Connective Detection
Luke Gessler | Shabnam Behzad | Yang Janet Liu | Siyao Peng | Yilun Zhu | Amir Zeldes

This paper describes our submission to the DISRPT2021 Shared Task on Discourse Unit Segmentation, Connective Detection, and Relation Classification. Our system, called DisCoDisCo, is a Transformer-based neural classifier which enhances contextualized word embeddings (CWEs) with hand-crafted features, relying on tokenwise sequence tagging for discourse segmentation and connective detection, and a feature-rich, encoder-less sentence pair classifier for relation classification. Our results for the first two tasks outperform SOTA scores from the previous 2019 shared task, and results on relation classification suggest strong performance on the new 2021 benchmark. Ablation tests show that including features beyond CWEs are helpful for both tasks, and a partial evaluation of multiple pretrained Transformer-based language models indicates that models pre-trained on the Next Sentence Prediction (NSP) task are optimal for relation classification.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the First Workshop on Speech and Language Technologies for Dravidian Languages

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Proceedings of the First Workshop on Speech and Language Technologies for Dravidian Languages
Bharathi Raja Chakravarthi | Ruba Priyadharshini | Anand Kumar M | Parameswari Krishnamurthy | Elizabeth Sherly

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Tamil Lyrics Corpus: Analysis and Experiments
Dhivya Chinnappa | Praveenraj Dhandapani

In this paper, we present a new Tamil lyrics corpus extracted from Tamil movies captured across a range of 65 years (1954 to 2019). We present a detailed corpus analysis showing the nature of Tamil lyrics with respect to lyricists and the year which it was written. We also present similar- ity score across different lyricists based on their song lyrics. We present experi- mental results based on the SOTA BERT Tamil models to identify the lyricists of a song. Finally, we present future research directions encouraging researchers to pur- sue Tamil NLP research.

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DOSA: Dravidian Code-Mixed Offensive Span Identification Dataset
Manikandan Ravikiran | Subbiah Annamalai

This paper presents the Dravidian Offensive Span Identification Dataset (DOSA) for under-resourced Tamil-English and Kannada-English code-mixed text. The dataset addresses the lack of code-mixed datasets with annotated offensive spans by extending annotations of existing code-mixed offensive language identification datasets. It provides span annotations for Tamil-English and Kannada-English code-mixed comments posted by users on YouTube social media. Overall the dataset consists of 4786 Tamil-English comments with 6202 annotated spans and 1097 Kannada-English comments with 1641 annotated spans, each annotated by two different annotators. We further present some of our baseline experimental results on the developed dataset, thereby eliciting research in under-resourced languages, leading to an essential step towards semi-automated content moderation in Dravidian languages. The dataset is available in https://github.com/teamdl-mlsg/DOSA

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Towards Offensive Language Identification for Dravidian Languages
Siva Sai | Yashvardhan Sharma

Offensive speech identification in countries like India poses several challenges due to the usage of code-mixed and romanized variants of multiple languages by the users in their posts on social media. The challenge of offensive language identification on social media for Dravidian languages is harder, considering the low resources available for the same. In this paper, we explored the zero-shot learning and few-shot learning paradigms based on multilingual language models for offensive speech detection in code-mixed and romanized variants of three Dravidian languages - Malayalam, Tamil, and Kannada. We propose a novel and flexible approach of selective translation and transliteration to reap better results from fine-tuning and ensembling multilingual transformer networks like XLMRoBERTa and mBERT. We implemented pretrained, fine-tuned, and ensembled versions of XLM-RoBERTa for offensive speech classification. Further, we experimented with interlanguage, inter-task, and multi-task transfer learning techniques to leverage the rich resources available for offensive speech identification in the English language and to enrich the models with knowledge transfer from related tasks. The proposed models yielded good results and are promising for effective offensive speech identification in low resource settings.

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Sentiment Classification of Code-Mixed Tweets using Bi-Directional RNN and Language Tags
Sainik Mahata | Dipankar Das | Sivaji Bandyopadhyay

Sentiment analysis tools and models have been developed extensively throughout the years, for European languages. In contrast, similar tools for Indian Languages are scarce. This is because, state-of-the-art pre-processing tools like POS tagger, shallow parsers, etc., are not readily available for Indian languages. Although, such working tools for Indian languages, like Hindi and Bengali, that are spoken by the majority of the population, are available, finding the same for less spoken languages like, Tamil, Telugu, and Malayalam, is difficult. Moreover, due to the advent of social media, the multi-lingual population of India, who are comfortable with both English ad their regional language, prefer to communicate by mixing both languages. This gives rise to massive code-mixed content and automatically annotating them with their respective sentiment labels becomes a challenging task. In this work, we take up a similar challenge of developing a sentiment analysis model that can work with English-Tamil code-mixed data. The proposed work tries to solve this by using bi-directional LSTMs along with language tagging. Other traditional methods, based on classical machine learning algorithms have also been discussed in the literature, and they also act as the baseline systems to which we will compare our Neural Network based model. The performance of the developed algorithm, based on Neural Network architecture, garnered precision, recall, and F1 scores of 0.59, 0.66, and 0.58 respectively.

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Offensive language identification in Dravidian code mixed social media text
Sunil Saumya | Abhinav Kumar | Jyoti Prakash Singh

Hate speech and offensive language recognition in social media platforms have been an active field of research over recent years. In non-native English spoken countries, social media texts are mostly in code mixed or script mixed/switched form. The current study presents extensive experiments using multiple machine learning, deep learning, and transfer learning models to detect offensive content on Twitter. The data set used for this study are in Tanglish (Tamil and English), Manglish (Malayalam and English) code-mixed, and Malayalam script-mixed. The experimental results showed that 1 to 6-gram character TF-IDF features are better for the said task. The best performing models were naive bayes, logistic regression, and vanilla neural network for the dataset Tamil code-mix, Malayalam code-mixed, and Malayalam script-mixed, respectively instead of more popular transfer learning models such as BERT and ULMFiT and hybrid deep models.

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Sentiment Analysis of Dravidian Code Mixed Data
Asrita Venkata Mandalam | Yashvardhan Sharma

This paper presents the methodologies implemented while classifying Dravidian code-mixed comments according to their polarity. With datasets of code-mixed Tamil and Malayalam available, three methods are proposed - a sub-word level model, a word embedding based model and a machine learning based architecture. The sub-word and word embedding based models utilized Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) network along with language-specific preprocessing while the machine learning model used term frequency–inverse document frequency (TF-IDF) vectorization along with a Logistic Regression model. The sub-word level model was submitted to the the track ‘Sentiment Analysis for Dravidian Languages in Code-Mixed Text’ proposed by Forum of Information Retrieval Evaluation in 2020 (FIRE 2020). Although it received a rank of 5 and 12 for the Tamil and Malayalam tasks respectively in the FIRE 2020 track, this paper improves upon the results by a margin to attain final weighted F1-scores of 0.65 for the Tamil task and 0.68 for the Malayalam task. The former score is equivalent to that attained by the highest ranked team of the Tamil track.

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Unsupervised Machine Translation On Dravidian Languages
Sai Koneru | Danni Liu | Jan Niehues

Unsupervised Neural Machine translation (UNMT) is beneficial especially for under-resourced languages such as from the Dravidian family. They learn to translate between the source and target, relying solely on only monolingual corpora. However, UNMT systems fail in scenarios that occur often when dealing with low resource languages. Recent works have achieved state-of-the-art results by adding auxiliary parallel data with similar languages. In this work, we focus on unsupervised translation between English and Kannada by using limited amounts of auxiliary data between English and other Dravidian languages. We show that transliteration is essential in unsupervised translation between Dravidian languages, as they do not share a common writing system. We explore several model architectures that use the auxiliary data in order to maximize knowledge sharing and enable UNMT for dissimilar language pairs. We show from our experiments it is crucial for Kannada and reference languages to be similar. Further, we propose a method to measure language similarity to choose the most beneficial reference languages.

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Graph Convolutional Networks with Multi-headed Attention for Code-Mixed Sentiment Analysis
Suman Dowlagar | Radhika Mamidi

Code-mixing is a frequently observed phenomenon in multilingual communities where a speaker uses multiple languages in an utterance or sentence. Code-mixed texts are abundant, especially in social media, and pose a problem for NLP tools as they are typically trained on monolingual corpora. Recently, finding the sentiment from code-mixed text has been attempted by some researchers in SentiMix SemEval 2020 and Dravidian-CodeMix FIRE 2020 shared tasks. Mostly, the attempts include traditional methods, long short term memory, convolutional neural networks, and transformer models for code-mixed sentiment analysis (CMSA). However, no study has explored graph convolutional neural networks on CMSA. In this paper, we propose the graph convolutional networks (GCN) for sentiment analysis on code-mixed text. We have used the datasets from the Dravidian-CodeMix FIRE 2020. Our experimental results on multiple CMSA datasets demonstrate that the GCN with multi-headed attention model has shown an improvement in classification metrics.

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Task-Specific Pre-Training and Cross Lingual Transfer for Sentiment Analysis in Dravidian Code-Switched Languages
Akshat Gupta | Sai Krishna Rallabandi | Alan W Black

Sentiment analysis in Code-Mixed languages has garnered a lot of attention in recent years. It is an important task for social media monitoring and has many applications, as a large chunk of social media data is Code-Mixed. In this paper, we work on the problem of sentiment analysis for Dravidian Code-Switched languages - Tamil-Engish and Malayalam-English, using three different BERT based models. We leverage task-specific pre-training and cross-lingual transfer to improve on previously reported results, with significant improvement for the Tamil-Engish dataset. We also present a multilingual sentiment classification model that has competitive performance on both Tamil-English and Malayalam-English datasets.

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Analysis of Uvama Urubugal in Tamil Sangam Literatures
Subalalitha Cn

Uvama urubugal in Tamil are used to explain a particular context by citing another equivalent context. This is referred to as “Uvamaiyani” in Tamil Grammar rules as stated in Tholkappiam. The is called as simile in English. Similes bring out many beautiful poetic contexts. Automatic extraction of such similes can help to build better Natural Language Generation applications such as, story generation systems and lyric suggestion systems. This paper attempts to automatically extract the uvama urubugal from Tamil Sangam Literatures. Natrinai and Mullai Pattu have been used for the analysis. There are 12 uvama urupugal in Tamil as per Nanool and this paper has attempted to analyze the usage of these 12 uvama urubugal in Sangam Literatures and compares their usage distribution in the Tamil Film songs data set comprising of 4215 songs. It was found that only two uvama urubugal were used in the current-day Tamil Film songs. This comparison was done to reveal the diminishing usage of these beautiful uvama urubugal by the current generation and the urge to use them again.

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Task-Oriented Dialog Systems for Dravidian Languages
Tushar Kanakagiri | Karthik Radhakrishnan

Task-oriented dialog systems help a user achieve a particular goal by parsing user requests to execute a particular action. These systems typically require copious amounts of training data to effectively understand the user intent and its corresponding slots. Acquiring large training corpora requires significant manual effort in annotation, rendering its construction infeasible for low-resource languages. In this paper, we present a two-step approach for automatically constructing task-oriented dialogue data in such languages by making use of annotated data from high resource languages. First, we use a machine translation (MT) system to translate the utterance and slot information to the target language. Second, we use token prefix matching and mBERT based semantic matching to align the slot tokens to the corresponding tokens in the utterance. We hand-curate a new test dataset in two low-resource Dravidian languages and show the significance and impact of our training dataset construction using a state-of-the-art mBERT model - achieving a Slot F1 of 81.51 (Kannada) and 78.82 (Tamil) on our test sets.

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A Survey on Paralinguistics in Tamil Speech Processing
Anosha Ignatius | Uthayasanker Thayasivam

Speech carries not only the semantic content but also the paralinguistic information which captures the speaking style. Speaker traits and emotional states affect how words are being spoken. The research on paralinguistic information is an emerging field in speech and language processing and it has many potential applications including speech recognition, speaker identification and verification, emotion recognition and accent recognition. Among them, there is a significant interest in emotion recognition from speech. A detailed study of paralinguistic information present in speech signal and an overview of research work related to speech emotion for Tamil Language is presented in this paper.

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Is this Enough?-Evaluation of Malayalam Wordnet
Nandu Chandran Nair | Maria-chiara Giangregorio | Fausto Giunchiglia

Quality of a product is the degree to which a product meets the customer’s expectation, which must also be valid for the case of lexical semantic resources. Conducting a periodic evaluation of resources is essential to ensure if the resources meet a native speaker’s expectations and free from errors. This paper defines the possible mistakes in a lexical semantic resource and explains the steps applied to quantify Malayalam wordnet quality. Malayalam is one of the classical languages of India. We hope to subset the less quality part of the wordnet and perform crowdsourcing to make it better.

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LA-SACo: A Study of Learning Approaches for Sentiments Analysis inCode-Mixing Texts
Fazlourrahman Balouchzahi | H L Shashirekha

Substantial amount of text data which is increasingly being generated and shared on the internet and social media every second affect the society positively or negatively almost in any aspect of online world and also business and industries. Sentiments/opinions/reviews’ of users posted on social media are the valuable information that have motivated researchers to analyze them to get better insight and feedbacks about any product such as a video in Instagram, a movie in Netflix, or even new brand car introduced by BMW. Sentiments are usually written using a combination of languages such as English which is resource rich and regional languages such as Tamil, Kannada, Malayalam, etc. which are resource poor. However, due to technical constraints, many users prefer to pen their opinions in Roman script. These kinds of texts written in two or more languages using a common language script or different language scripts are called code-mixing texts. Code-mixed texts are increasing day-by-day with the increase in the number of users depending on various online platforms. Analyzing such texts pose a real challenge for the researchers. In view of the challenges posed by the code-mixed texts, this paper describes three proposed models namely, SACo-Ensemble, SACo-Keras, and SACo-ULMFiT using Machine Learning (ML), Deep Learning (DL), and Transfer Learning (TL) approaches respectively for the task of Sentiments Analysis in Tamil-English and Malayalam-English code-mixed texts.

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Findings of the Shared Task on Machine Translation in Dravidian languages
Bharathi Raja Chakravarthi | Ruba Priyadharshini | Shubhanker Banerjee | Richard Saldanha | John P. McCrae | Anand Kumar M | Parameswari Krishnamurthy | Melvin Johnson

This paper presents an overview of the shared task on machine translation of Dravidian languages. We presented the shared task results at the EACL 2021 workshop on Speech and Language Technologies for Dravidian Languages. This paper describes the datasets used, the methodology used for the evaluation of participants, and the experiments’ overall results. As a part of this shared task, we organized four sub-tasks corresponding to machine translation of the following language pairs: English to Tamil, English to Malayalam, English to Telugu and Tamil to Telugu which are available at https://competitions.codalab.org/competitions/27650. We provided the participants with training and development datasets to perform experiments, and the results were evaluated on unseen test data. In total, 46 research groups participated in the shared task and 7 experimental runs were submitted for evaluation. We used BLEU scores for assessment of the translations.

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Findings of the Shared Task on Troll Meme Classification in Tamil
Shardul Suryawanshi | Bharathi Raja Chakravarthi

The internet has facilitated its user-base with a platform to communicate and express their views without any censorship. On the other hand, this freedom of expression or free speech can be abused by its user or a troll to demean an individual or a group. Demeaning people based on their gender, sexual orientation, religious believes or any other characteristics –trolling– could cause great distress in the online community. Hence, the content posted by a troll needs to be identified and dealt with before causing any more damage. Amongst all the forms of troll content, memes are most prevalent due to their popularity and ability to propagate across cultures. A troll uses a meme to demean, attack or offend its targetted audience. In this shared task, we provide a resource (TamilMemes) that could be used to train a system capable of identifying a troll meme in the Tamil language. In our TamilMemes dataset, each meme has been categorized into either a “troll” or a “not_troll” class. Along with the meme images, we also provided the Latin transcripted text from memes. We received 10 system submissions from the participants which were evaluated using the weighted average F1-score. The system with the weighted average F1-score of 0.55 secured the first rank.

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Findings of the Shared Task on Offensive Language Identification in Tamil, Malayalam, and Kannada
Bharathi Raja Chakravarthi | Ruba Priyadharshini | Navya Jose | Anand Kumar M | Thomas Mandl | Prasanna Kumar Kumaresan | Rahul Ponnusamy | Hariharan R L | John P. McCrae | Elizabeth Sherly

Detecting offensive language in social media in local languages is critical for moderating user-generated content. Thus, the field of offensive language identification in under-resourced Tamil, Malayalam and Kannada languages are essential. As the user-generated content is more code-mixed and not well studied for under-resourced languages, it is imperative to create resources and conduct benchmarking studies to encourage research in under-resourced Dravidian languages. We created a shared task on offensive language detection in Dravidian languages. We summarize here the dataset for this challenge which are openly available at https://competitions.codalab.org/competitions/27654, and present an overview of the methods and the results of the competing systems.

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GX@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Multilingual Neural Machine Translation and Back-translation
Wanying Xie

In this paper, we describe the GX system in the EACL2021 shared task on machine translation in Dravidian languages. Given the low amount of parallel training data, We adopt two methods to improve the overall performance: (1) multilingual translation, we use a shared encoder-decoder multilingual translation model handling multiple languages simultaneously to facilitate the translation performance of these languages; (2) back-translation, we collected other open-source parallel and monolingual data and apply back-translation to benefit from the monolingual data. The experimental results show that we can achieve satisfactory translation results in these Dravidian languages and rank first in English-Telugu and Tamil-Telugu translation.

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OFFLangOne@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Transformers with the Class Balanced Loss for Offensive Language Identification in Dravidian Code-Mixed text.
Suman Dowlagar | Radhika Mamidi

The intensity of online abuse has increased in recent years. Automated tools are being developed to prevent the use of hate speech and offensive content. Most of the technologies use natural language and machine learning tools to identify offensive text. In a multilingual society, where code-mixing is a norm, the hate content would be delivered in a code-mixed form in social media, which makes the offensive content identification, further challenging. In this work, we participated in the EACL task to detect offensive content in the code-mixed social media scenario. The methodology uses a transformer model with transliteration and class balancing loss for offensive content identification. In this task, our model has been ranked 2nd in Malayalam-English and 4th in Tamil-English code-mixed languages.

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Simon @ DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Detecting Offensive Content in Kannada Language
Qinyu Que

This article introduces the system for the shared task of Offensive Language Identification in Dravidian Languages-EACL 2021. The world’s information technology develops at a high speed. People are used to expressing their views and opinions on social media. This leads to a lot of offensive language on social media. As people become more dependent on social media, the detection of offensive language becomes more and more necessary. This shared task is in three languages: Tamil, Malayalam, and Kannada. Our team takes part in the Kannada language task. To accomplish the task, we use the XLM-Roberta model for pre-training. But the capabilities of the XLM-Roberta model do not satisfy us in terms of statement information collection. So we made some tweaks to the output of this model. In this paper, we describe the models and experiments for accomplishing the task of the Kannada language.

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Codewithzichao@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Exploring Multilingual Transformers for Offensive Language Identification on Code Mixing Text
Zichao Li

This paper describes our solution submitted to shared task on Offensive Language Identification in Dravidian Languages. We participated in all three of offensive language identification. In order to address the task, we explored multilingual models based on XLM-RoBERTa and multilingual BERT trained on mixed data of three code-mixed languages. Besides, we solved the class-imbalance problem existed in training data by class combination, class weights and focal loss. Our model achieved weighted average F1 scores of 0.75 (ranked 4th), 0.94 (ranked 4th) and 0.72 (ranked 3rd) in Tamil-English task, Malayalam-English task and Kannada-English task, respectively.

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JudithJeyafreedaAndrew@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021:Offensive language detection for Dravidian Code-mixed YouTube comments
Judith Jeyafreeda Andrew

Title: JudithJeyafreedaAndrew@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021:Offensive language detection for Dravidian Code-mixed YouTube comments Author: Judith Jeyafreeda Andrew Messaging online has become one of the major ways of communication. At this level, there are cases of online/digital bullying. These include rants, taunts, and offensive phrases. Thus the identification of offensive language on the internet is a very essential task. In this paper, the task of offensive language detection on YouTube comments from the Dravidian lan- guages of Tamil, Malayalam and Kannada are seen upon as a mutliclass classification prob- lem. After being subjected to language spe- cific pre-processing, several Machine Learn- ing algorithms have been trained for the task at hand. The paper presents the accuracy results on the development datasets for all Machine Learning models that have been used and fi- nally presents the weighted average scores for the test set when using the best performing Ma- chine Learning model.

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professionals@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Malayalam Offensive Language Identification - A Minimalistic Approach
Srinath Nair | Dolton Fernandes

The submission is being made as a working note as part of the Offensive Language Identification in Dravidian Languages shared task. The proposed model “DrOLIC” uses IndicBERT and a simple 4-layered MLP to do the multiclass classification problem and we achieved an F1 score of 0.85 on the Malayalam dataset.

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UVCE-IIITT@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Tamil Troll Meme Classification: You need to Pay more Attention
Siddhanth U Hegde | Adeep Hande | Ruba Priyadharshini | Sajeetha Thavareesan | Bharathi Raja Chakravarthi

Tamil is a Dravidian language that is commonly used and spoken in the southern part of Asia. During the 21st century and in the era of social media, memes have been a fun moment during the day to day life of people. Here, we try to analyze the true meaning of Tamil memes by classifying them as troll or non-troll. We present an ingenious model consisting of transformer-transformer architecture that tries to attain state of the art by using attention as its main component. The dataset consists of troll and non-troll images with their captions as texts. The task is a binary classification task. The objective of the model was to pay more and more attention to the extracted features and to ignore the noise in both images and text.

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IIITT@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Transfer Learning for Offensive Language Detection in Dravidian Languages
Konthala Yasaswini | Karthik Puranik | Adeep Hande | Ruba Priyadharshini | Sajeetha Thavareesan | Bharathi Raja Chakravarthi

This paper demonstrates our work for the shared task on Offensive Language Identification in Dravidian Languages-EACL 2021. Offensive language detection in the various social media platforms was identified previously. But with the increase in diversity of users, there is a need to identify the offensive language in multilingual posts that are largely code-mixed or written in a non-native script. We approach this challenge with various transfer learning-based models to classify a given post or comment in Dravidian languages (Malayalam, Tamil, and Kannada) into 6 categories. The source codes for our systems are published.

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Hypers@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Offensive language identification in Dravidian code-mixed YouTube Comments and Posts
Charangan Vasantharajan | Uthayasanker Thayasivam

Code-Mixed Offensive contents are used pervasively in social media posts in the last few years. Consequently, gained the significant attraction of the research community for identifying the different forms of such content (e.g., hate speech, and sentiments) and contributed to the creation of datasets. Most of the recent studies deal with high-resource languages (e.g., English) due to many publicly available datasets, and by the lack of dataset in low-resource anguages, those studies are slightly involved in these languages. Therefore, this study has the focus on offensive language identification on code-mixed low-resourced Dravidian languages such as Tamil, Kannada, and Malayalam using the bidirectional approach and fine-tuning strategies. According to the leaderboard, the proposed model got a 0.96 F1-score for Malayalam, 0.73 F1-score for Tamil, and 0.70 F1-score for Kannada in the bench-mark. Moreover, in the view of multilingual models, this modal ranked 3rd and achieved favorable results and confirmed the model as the best among all systems submitted to these shared tasks in these three languages.

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HUB@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Identify and Classify Offensive Text in Multilingual Code Mixing in Social Media
Bo Huang | Yang Bai

This paper introduces the system description of the HUB team participating in DravidianLangTech - EACL2021: Offensive Language Identification in Dravidian Languages. The theme of this shared task is the detection of offensive content in social media. Among the known tasks related to offensive speech detection, this is the first task to detect offensive comments posted in social media comments in the Dravidian language. The task organizer team provided us with the code-mixing task data set mainly composed of three different languages: Malayalam, Kannada, and Tamil. The tasks on the code mixed data in these three different languages can be seen as three different comment/post-level classification tasks. The task on the Malayalam data set is a five-category classification task, and the Kannada and Tamil language data sets are two six-category classification tasks. Based on our analysis of the task description and task data set, we chose to use the multilingual BERT model to complete this task. In this paper, we will discuss our fine-tuning methods, models, experiments, and results.

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HUB@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Meme Classification for Tamil Text-Image Fusion
Bo Huang | Yang Bai

This article describes our system for task DravidianLangTech - EACL2021: Meme classification for Tamil. In recent years, we have witnessed the rapid development of the Internet and social media. Compared with traditional TV and radio media platforms, there are not so many restrictions on the use of online social media for individuals and many functions of online social media platforms are free. Based on this feature of social media, it is difficult for people’s posts/comments on social media to be strictly and effectively controlled like TV and radio content. Therefore, the detection of negative information in social media has attracted attention from academic and industrial fields in recent years. The task of classifying memes is also driven by offensive posts/comments prevalent on social media. The data of the meme classification task is the fusion data of text and image information. To identify the content expressed by the meme, we develop a system that combines BiGRU and CNN. It can fuse visual features and text features to achieve the purpose of using multi-modal information from memetic data. In this article, we discuss our methods, models, experiments, and results.

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ZYJ123@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Offensive Language Identification based on XLM-RoBERTa with DPCNN
Yingjia Zhao | Xin Tao

The development of online media platforms has given users more opportunities to post and comment freely, but the negative impact of offensive language has become increasingly apparent. It is very necessary for the automatic identification system of offensive language. This paper describes our work on the task of Offensive Language Identification in Dravidian language-EACL 2021. To complete this task, we propose a system based on the multilingual model XLM-Roberta and DPCNN. The test results on the official test data set confirm the effectiveness of our system. The weighted average F1-score of Kannada, Malayalam, and Tami language are 0.69, 0.92, and 0.76 respectively, ranked 6th, 6th, and 3rd

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IIITK@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Offensive Language Identification and Meme Classification in Tamil, Malayalam and Kannada
Nikhil Ghanghor | Parameswari Krishnamurthy | Sajeetha Thavareesan | Ruba Priyadharshini | Bharathi Raja Chakravarthi

This paper describes the IIITK team’s submissions to the offensive language identification, and troll memes classification shared tasks for Dravidian languages at DravidianLangTech 2021 workshop@EACL 2021. Our best configuration for Tamil troll meme classification achieved 0.55 weighted average F1 score, and for offensive language identification, our system achieved weighted F1 scores of 0.75 for Tamil, 0.95 for Malayalam, and 0.71 for Kannada. Our rank on Tamil troll meme classification is 2, and offensive language identification in Tamil, Malayalam and Kannada are 3, 3 and 4 respectively.

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cs@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Offensive Language Identification Based On Multilingual BERT Model
Shi Chen | Bing Kong

This paper introduces the related content of the task “Offensive Language Identification in Dravidian LANGUAGES-EACL 2021”. The task requires us to classify Dravidian languages collected from social media into Not-Offensive, Off-Untargeted, Off-Target-Individual, etc. This data set contains actual annotations in code-mixed text posted by users on Youtube, not from the monolingual text in textbooks. Based on the features of the data set code mixture, we use multilingual BERT and TextCNN for semantic extraction and text classification. In this article, we will show the experiment and result analysis of this task.

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CUSATNLP@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021:Language Agnostic Classification of Offensive Content in Tweets
Sara Renjit | Sumam Mary Idicula

Identifying offensive information from tweets is a vital language processing task. This task concentrated more on English and other foreign languages these days. In this shared task on Offensive Language Identification in Dravidian Languages, in the First Workshop of Speech and Language Technologies for Dravidian Languages in EACL 2021, the aim is to identify offensive content from code mixed Dravidian Languages Kannada, Malayalam, and Tamil. Our team used language agnostic BERT (Bidirectional Encoder Representation from Transformers) for sentence embedding and a Softmax classifier. The language-agnostic representation based classification helped obtain good performance for all the three languages, out of which results for the Malayalam language are good enough to obtain a third position among the participating teams.

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IIIT_DWD@EACL2021: Identifying Troll Meme in Tamil using a hybrid deep learning approach
Ankit Kumar Mishra | Sunil Saumya

Social media are an open forum that allows people to share their knowledge, abilities, talents, ideas, or expressions. Simultaneously, it also allows people to post disrespectful, trolling, defamation, or negative content targeting users or the community based on their gender, race, religious beliefs, etc. Such posts are available in the form of text, image, video, and meme. Among them, memes are currently widely used to disseminate offensive material amongst people. It is primarily in the form of pictures and text. In the present paper, troll memes are identified, which is necessary to create a healthy society. To do so, a hybrid deep learning model combining convolutional neural networks and bidirectional long short term memory is proposed to identify trolled memes. The dataset used in the study is a part of the competition EACL 2021: Troll Meme classification in Tamil. The proposed model obtained 10th rank in the competition and reported a precision of 0.52, recall 0.59, and weighted F10.3.

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Amrita_CEN_NLP@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Deep Learning-based Offensive Language Identification in Malayalam, Tamil and Kannada
Sreelakshmi K | Premjith B | Soman Kp

This paper describes the submission of the team Amrita_CEN_NLP to the shared task on Offensive Language Identification in Dravidian Languages at EACL 2021. We implemented three deep neural network architectures such as a hybrid network with a Convolutional layer, a Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory network (Bi-LSTM) layer and a hidden layer, a network containing a Bi-LSTM and another with a Bidirectional Recurrent Neural Network (Bi-RNN). In addition to that, we incorporated a cost-sensitive learning approach to deal with the problem of class imbalance in the training data. Among the three models, the hybrid network exhibited better training performance, and we submitted the predictions based on the same.

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NLP-CUET@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Offensive Language Detection from Multilingual Code-Mixed Text using Transformers
Omar Sharif | Eftekhar Hossain | Mohammed Moshiul Hoque

The increasing accessibility of the internet facilitated social media usage and encouraged individuals to express their opinions liberally. Nevertheless, it also creates a place for content polluters to disseminate offensive posts or contents. Most of such offensive posts are written in a cross-lingual manner and can easily evade the online surveillance systems. This paper presents an automated system that can identify offensive text from multilingual code-mixed data. In the task, datasets provided in three languages including Tamil, Malayalam and Kannada code-mixed with English where participants are asked to implement separate models for each language. To accomplish the tasks, we employed two machine learning techniques (LR, SVM), three deep learning (LSTM, LSTM+Attention) techniques and three transformers (m-BERT, Indic-BERT, XLM-R) based methods. Results show that XLM-R outperforms other techniques in Tamil and Malayalam languages while m-BERT achieves the highest score in the Kannada language. The proposed models gained weighted f_1 score of 0.76 (for Tamil), 0.93 (for Malayalam ), and 0.71 (for Kannada) with a rank of 3rd, 5th and 4th respectively.

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IRLAB-DAIICT@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Neural Machine Translation
Raj Prajapati | Vedant Vijay Parikh | Prasenjit Majumder

This paper describes our team’s submission of the EACL DravidianLangTech-2021’s shared task on Machine Translation of Dravidian languages. We submitted our translations for English to Malayalam , Tamil , Telugu and also Tamil-Telugu language pairs. The submissions mainly focus on having adequate amount of data backed up by good preprocessing of it to produce quality translations,which includes some custom made rules to remove unnecessary sentences. We conducted several experiments on these models by tweaking the architecture,Byte Pair Encoding (BPE) and other hyperparameters.

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IRNLP_DAIICT@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021:Offensive Language identification in Dravidian Languages using TF-IDF Char N-grams and MuRIL
Bhargav Dave | Shripad Bhat | Prasenjit Majumder

This paper presents the participation of the IRNLPDAIICT team from Information Retrieval and Natural Language Processing lab at DA-IICT, India in DravidianLangTech-EACL2021 Offensive Language identification in Dravidian Languages. The aim of this shared task is to identify Offensive Language from a code-mixed data-set of YouTube comments. The task is to classify comments into Not Offensive (NO), Offensive Untargetede(OU), Offensive Targeted Individual (OTI), Offensive Targeted Group (OTG), Offensive Targeted Others (OTO), Other Language (OL) for three Dravidian languages: Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil. We use TF-IDF character n-grams and pretrained MuRIL embeddings for text representation and Logistic Regression and Linear SVM for classification. Our best approach achieved Ninth, Third and Eighth with weighted F1 score of 0.64, 0.95 and 0.71in Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil on test dataset respectively.

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Hate-Alert@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Ensembling strategies for Transformer-based Offensive language Detection
Debjoy Saha | Naman Paharia | Debajit Chakraborty | Punyajoy Saha | Animesh Mukherjee

Social media often acts as breeding grounds for different forms of offensive content. For low resource languages like Tamil, the situation is more complex due to the poor performance of multilingual or language-specific models and lack of proper benchmark datasets. Based on this shared task “Offensive Language Identification in Dravidian Languages” at EACL 2021; we present an exhaustive exploration of different transformer models, We also provide a genetic algorithm technique for ensembling different models. Our ensembled models trained separately for each language secured the first position in Tamil, the second position in Kannada, and the first position in Malayalam sub-tasks. The models and codes are provided.

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TrollMeta@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Meme classification using deep learning
Manoj Balaji J | Chinmaya Hs

Memes act as a medium to carry one’s feelings, cultural ideas, or practices by means of symbols, imitations, or simply images. Whenever social media is involved, hurting the feelings of others and abusing others are always a problem. Here we are proposing a system, that classifies the memes into abusive/offensive memes and neutral ones. The work involved classifying the images into offensive and non-offensive ones. The system implements resnet-50, a deep residual neural network architecture.

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Maoqin @ DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: The Application of Transformer-Based Model
Maoqin Yang

This paper describes the result of team-Maoqin at DravidianLangTech-EACL2021. The provided task consists of three languages(Tamil, Malayalam, and Kannada), I only participate in one of the language task-Malayalam. The goal of this task is to identify offensive language content of the code-mixed dataset of comments/posts in Dravidian Languages (Tamil-English, Malayalam-English, and Kannada-English) collected from social media. This is a classification task at the comment/post level. Given a Youtube comment, systems have to classify it into Not-offensive, Offensive-untargeted, Offensive-targeted-individual, Offensive-targeted-group, Offensive-targeted-other, or Not-in-indented-language. I use the transformer-based language model with BiGRU-Attention to complete this task. To prove the validity of the model, I also use some other neural network models for comparison. And finally, the team ranks 5th in this task with a weighted average F1 score of 0.93 on the private leader board.

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Simon @ DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Meme Classification for Tamil with BERT
Qinyu Que

In this paper, we introduce the system for the task of meme classification for Tamil, submitted by our team. In today’s society, social media has become an important platform for people to communicate. We use social media to share information about ourselves and express our views on things. It has gradually developed a unique form of emotional expression on social media – meme. The meme is an expression that is often ironic. This also gives the meme a unique sense of humor. But it’s not just positive content on social media. There’s also a lot of offensive content. Meme’s unique expression makes it often used by some users to post offensive content. Therefore, it is very urgent to detect the offensive content of the meme. Our team uses the natural language processing method to classify the offensive content of the meme. Our team combines the BERT model with the CNN to improve the model’s ability to collect statement information. Finally, the F1-score of our team in the official test set is 0.49, and our method ranks 5th.

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Bitions@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Ensemble of Multilingual Language Models with Pseudo Labeling for offence Detection in Dravidian Languages
Debapriya Tula | Prathyush Potluri | Shreyas Ms | Sumanth Doddapaneni | Pranjal Sahu | Rohan Sukumaran | Parth Patwa

With the advent of social media, we have seen a proliferation of data and public discourse. Unfortunately, this includes offensive content as well. The problem is exacerbated due to the sheer number of languages spoken on these platforms and the multiple other modalities used for sharing offensive content (images, gifs, videos and more). In this paper, we propose a multilingual ensemble-based model that can identify offensive content targeted against an individual (or group) in low resource Dravidian language. Our model is able to handle code-mixed data as well as instances where the script used is mixed (for instance, Tamil and Latin). Our solution ranked number one for the Malayalam dataset and ranked 4th and 5th for Tamil and Kannada, respectively.

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NLP-CUET@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Investigating Visual and Textual Features to Identify Trolls from Multimodal Social Media Memes
Eftekhar Hossain | Omar Sharif | Mohammed Moshiul Hoque

In the past few years, the meme has become a new way of communication on the Internet. As memes are in images forms with embedded text, it can quickly spread hate, offence and violence. Classifying memes are very challenging because of their multimodal nature and region-specific interpretation. A shared task is organized to develop models that can identify trolls from multimodal social media memes. This work presents a computational model that we developed as part of our participation in the task. Training data comes in two forms: an image with embedded Tamil code-mixed text and an associated caption. We investigated the visual and textual features using CNN, VGG16, Inception, m-BERT, XLM-R, XLNet algorithms. Multimodal features are extracted by combining image (CNN, ResNet50, Inception) and text (Bi-LSTM) features via early fusion approach. Results indicate that the textual approach with XLNet achieved the highest weighted f_1-score of 0.58, which enable our model to secure 3rd rank in this task.

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SJ_AJ@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Task-Adaptive Pre-Training of Multilingual BERT models for Offensive Language Identification
Sai Muralidhar Jayanthi | Akshat Gupta

In this paper we present our submission for the EACL 2021-Shared Task on Offensive Language Identification in Dravidian languages. Our final system is an ensemble of mBERT and XLM-RoBERTa models which leverage task-adaptive pre-training of multilingual BERT models with a masked language modeling objective. Our system was ranked 1st for Kannada, 2nd for Malayalam and 3rd for Tamil.

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SSNCSE_NLP@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Offensive Language Identification on Multilingual Code Mixing Text
Bharathi B | Agnusimmaculate Silvia A

Social networks made a huge impact in almost all fields in recent years. Text messaging through the Internet or cellular phones has become a major medium of personal and commercial communication. Everyday we have to deal with texts, emails or different types of messages in which there are a variety of attacks and abusive phrases. It is the moderator’s decision which comments to remove from the platform because of violations and which ones to keep but an automatic software for detecting abusive languages would be useful in recent days. In this paper we describe an automatic offensive language identification from Dravidian languages with various machine learning algorithms. This is work is shared task in DravidanLangTech-EACL2021. The goal of this task is to identify offensive language content of the code-mixed dataset of comments/posts in Dravidian Languages ( (Tamil-English, Malayalam-English, and Kannada-English)) collected from social media. This work explains the submissions made by SSNCSE_NLP in DravidanLangTech-EACL2021 Code-mix tasks for Offensive language detection. We achieve F1 scores of 0.95 for Malayalam, 0.7 for Kannada and 0.73 for task2-Tamil on the test-set.

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JUNLP@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Offensive Language Identification in Dravidian Langauges
Avishek Garain | Atanu Mandal | Sudip Kumar Naskar

Offensive language identification has been an active area of research in natural language processing. With the emergence of multiple social media platforms offensive language identification has emerged as a need of the hour. Traditional offensive language identification models fail to deliver acceptable results as social media contents are largely in multilingual and are code-mixed in nature. This paper tries to resolve this problem by using IndicBERT and BERT architectures, to facilitate identification of offensive languages for Kannada-English, Malayalam-English, and Tamil-English code-mixed language pairs extracted from social media. The presented approach when evaluated on the test corpus provided precision, recall, and F1 score for language pair Kannada-English as 0.62, 0.71, and 0.66, respectively, for language pair Malayalam-English as 0.77, 0.43, and 0.53, respectively, and for Tamil-English as 0.71, 0.74, and 0.72, respectively.

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MUCS@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021:COOLI-Code-Mixing Offensive Language Identification
Fazlourrahman Balouchzahi | Aparna B K | H L Shashirekha

This paper describes the models submitted by the team MUCS for Offensive Language Identification in Dravidian Languages-EACL 2021 shared task that aims at identifying and classifying code-mixed texts of three language pairs namely, Kannada-English (Kn-En), Malayalam-English (Ma-En), and Tamil-English (Ta-En) into six predefined categories (5 categories in Ma-En language pair). Two models, namely, COOLI-Ensemble and COOLI-Keras are trained with the char sequences extracted from the sentences combined with words as features. Out of the two proposed models, COOLI-Ensemble model (best among our models) obtained first rank for Ma-En language pair with 0.97 weighted F1-score and fourth and sixth ranks with 0.75 and 0.69 weighted F1-score for Ta-En and Kn-En language pairs respectively.

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indicnlp@kgp at DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Offensive Language Identification in Dravidian Languages
Kushal Kedia | Abhilash Nandy

The paper aims to classify different offensive content types in 3 code-mixed Dravidian language datasets. The work leverages existing state of the art approaches in text classification by incorporating additional data and transfer learning on pre-trained models. Our final submission is an ensemble of an AWD-LSTM based model along with 2 different transformer model architectures based on BERT and RoBERTa. We achieved weighted-average F1 scores of 0.97, 0.77, and 0.72 in the Malayalam-English, Tamil-English, and Kannada-English datasets ranking 1st, 2nd, and 3rd on the respective shared-task leaderboards.

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SSNCSE_NLP@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Meme classification for Tamil using machine learning approach
Bharathi B | Agnusimmaculate Silvia A

Social media are interactive platforms that facilitate the creation or sharing of information, ideas or other forms of expression among people. This exchange is not free from offensive, trolling or malicious contents targeting users or communities. One way of trolling is by making memes. A meme is an image or video that represents the thoughts and feelings of a specific audience. The challenge of dealing with memes is that they are region-specific and their meaning is often obscured in humour or sarcasm. A meme is a form of media that spreads an idea or emotion across the internet. The multi modal nature of memes, postings of hateful memes or related events like trolling, cyberbullying are increasing day by day. Memes make it even more challenging since they express humour and sarcasm in an implicit way, because of which the meme may not be offensive if we only consider the text or the image. In this paper we proposed a approach for meme classification for Tamil language that considers only the text present in the meme. This work explains the submissions made by SSNCSE NLP in DravidanLangTechEACL2021 task for meme classification in Tamil language. We achieve F1 scores of 0.50 using the proposed approach using the test-set.

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MUCS@ - Machine Translation for Dravidian Languages using Stacked Long Short Term Memory
Asha Hegde | Ibrahim Gashaw | Shashirekha H.l.

Dravidian language family is one of the largest language families in the world. In spite of its uniqueness, Dravidian languages have gained very less attention due to scarcity of resources to conduct language technology tasks such as translation, Parts-of-Speech tagging, Word Sense Disambiguation etc,. In this paper, we, team MUCS, describe sequence-to-sequence stacked Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) based Neural Machine Translation (NMT) model submitted to “Machine Translation in Dravidian languages”, a shared task organized by EACL-2021. The NMT model was applied on translation using English-Tamil, EnglishTelugu, English-Malayalam and Tamil-Telugu corpora provided by the organizers. Standard evaluation metrics namely Bilingual Evaluation Understudy (BLEU) and human evaluations are used to evaluate the model. Our models exhibited good accuracy for all the language pairs and obtained 2nd rank for TamilTelugu language pair.

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OffTamil@DravideanLangTech-EASL2021: Offensive Language Identification in Tamil Text
Disne Sivalingam | Sajeetha Thavareesan

In the last few decades, Code-Mixed Offensive texts are used penetratingly in social media posts. Social media platforms and online communities showed much interest on offensive text identification in recent years. Consequently, research community is also interested in identifying such content and also contributed to the development of corpora. Many publicly available corpora are there for research on identifying offensive text written in English language but rare for low resourced languages like Tamil. The first code-mixed offensive text for Dravidian languages are developed by shared task organizers which is used for this study. This study focused on offensive language identification on code-mixed low-resourced Dravidian language Tamil using four classifiers (Support Vector Machine, random forest, k- Nearest Neighbour and Naive Bayes) using chiˆ2 feature selection technique along with BoW and TF-IDF feature representation techniques using different combinations of n-grams. This proposed model achieved an accuracy of 76.96% while using linear SVM with TF-IDF feature representation technique.

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Codewithzichao@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Exploring Multimodal Transformers for Meme Classification in Tamil Language
Zichao Li

This paper describes our submission to shared task on Meme Classification for Tamil Language. To address this task, we explore a multimodal transformer for meme classification in Tamil language. According to the characteristics of the image and text, we use different pretrained models to encode the image and text so as to get better representations of the image and text respectively. Besides, we design a multimodal attention layer to make the text and corresponding image interact fully with each other based on cross attention. Our model achieved 0.55 weighted average F1 score and ranked first in this task.

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DLRG@DravidianLangTech-EACL2021: Transformer based approachfor Offensive Language Identification on Code-Mixed Tamil
Ratnavel Rajalakshmi | Yashwant Reddy | Lokesh Kumar

Internet advancements have made a huge impact on the communication pattern of people and their life style. People express their opinion on products, politics, movies etc. in social media. Even though, English is predominantly used, nowadays many people prefer to tweet in their native language and some- times by combining it with English. Sentiment analysis on such code-mixed tweets is challenging, due to large vocabulary, grammar and colloquial usage of many words. In this paper, the transformer based language model is applied to analyse the sentiment on Tanglish tweets, which is a combination of Tamil and English. This work has been submitted to the the shared task on DravidianLangTech- EACL2021. From the experimental results, it is shown that an F 1 score of 64% was achieved in detecting the hate speech in code-mixed Tamil-English tweets using bidirectional trans- former model.
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bib (full) The First Workshop on Evaluations and Assessments of Neural Conversation Systems

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The First Workshop on Evaluations and Assessments of Neural Conversation Systems
Wei Wei | Bo Dai | Tuo Zhao | Lihong Li | Diyi Yang | Yun-Nung Chen | Y-Lan Boureau | Asli Celikyilmaz | Alborz Geramifard | Aman Ahuja | Haoming Jiang

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Counterfactual Matters: Intrinsic Probing For Dialogue State Tracking
Yi Huang | Junlan Feng | Xiaoting Wu | Xiaoyu Du

A Dialogue State Tracker (DST) is a core component of modular task-oriented dialogue systems. Tremendous research progress has been made in past ten years to improve performance of DSTs especially on benchmark datasets. However, their generalization to novel and realistic scenarios beyond the held-out conversations is limited. In this paper, we design experimental studies to answer: 1) How does the distribution of dialogue data affect the performance of DSTs? 2) What are effective ways to probe counterfactual matter for DSTs? Our findings are: the performance variance of generative DSTs is not only due to the model structure itself, but can be attributed to the distribution of cross-domain values. Evaluating iconic generative DST models on MultiWOZ dataset with counterfactuals results in a significant performance drop of up to 34.64% (from 50.91% to 16.27%) in absolute joint goal accuracy. It is believed that our experimental results can guide the future work to better understand the intrinsic core of DST and rethink the suitable way for specific tasks given the application property.

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GCDF1: A Goal- and Context- Driven F-Score for Evaluating User Models
Alexandru Coca | Bo-Hsiang Tseng | Bill Byrne

The evaluation of dialogue systems in interaction with simulated users has been proposed to improve turn-level, corpus-based metrics which can only evaluate test cases encountered in a corpus and cannot measure system’s ability to sustain multi-turn interactions. Recently, little emphasis was put on automatically assessing the quality of the user model itself, so unless correlations with human studies are measured, the reliability of user model based evaluation is unknown. We propose GCDF1, a simple but effective measure of the quality of semantic-level conversations between a goal-driven user agent and a system agent. In contrast with previous approaches we measure the F-score at dialogue level and consider user and system behaviours to improve recall and precision estimation. We facilitate scores interpretation by providing a rich hierarchical structure with information about conversational patterns present in the test data and tools to efficiently query the conversations generated. We apply our framework to assess the performance and weaknesses of a Convlab2 user model.

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A Comprehensive Assessment of Dialog Evaluation Metrics
Yi-Ting Yeh | Maxine Eskenazi | Shikib Mehri

Automatic evaluation metrics are a crucial component of dialog systems research. Standard language evaluation metrics are known to be ineffective for evaluating dialog. As such, recent research has proposed a number of novel, dialog-specific metrics that correlate better with human judgements. Due to the fast pace of research, many of these metrics have been assessed on different datasets and there has as yet been no time for a systematic comparison between them. To this end, this paper provides a comprehensive assessment of recently proposed dialog evaluation metrics on a number of datasets. In this paper, 23 different automatic evaluation metrics are evaluated on 10 different datasets. Furthermore, the metrics are assessed in different settings, to better qualify their respective strengths and weaknesses. This comprehensive assessment offers several takeaways pertaining to dialog evaluation metrics in general. It also suggests how to best assess evaluation metrics and indicates promising directions for future work.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on e-Commerce and NLP

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Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on e-Commerce and NLP
Shervin Malmasi | Surya Kallumadi | Nicola Ueffing | Oleg Rokhlenko | Eugene Agichtein | Ido Guy

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BERT Goes Shopping: Comparing Distributional Models for Product Representations
Federico Bianchi | Bingqing Yu | Jacopo Tagliabue

Word embeddings (e.g., word2vec) have been applied successfully to eCommerce products through prod2vec. Inspired by the recent performance improvements on several NLP tasks brought by contextualized embeddings, we propose to transfer BERT-like architectures to eCommerce: our model - Prod2BERT - is trained to generate representations of products through masked session modeling. Through extensive experiments over multiple shops, different tasks, and a range of design choices, we systematically compare the accuracy of Prod2BERT and prod2vec embeddings: while Prod2BERT is found to be superior in several scenarios, we highlight the importance of resources and hyperparameters in the best performing models. Finally, we provide guidelines to practitioners for training embeddings under a variety of computational and data constraints.

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Attribute Value Generation from Product Title using Language Models
Kalyani Roy | Pawan Goyal | Manish Pandey

Identifying the value of product attribute is essential for many e-commerce functions such as product search and product recommendations. Therefore, identifying attribute values from unstructured product descriptions is a critical undertaking for any e-commerce retailer. What makes this problem challenging is the diversity of product types and their attributes and values. Existing methods have typically employed multiple types of machine learning models, each of which handles specific product types or attribute classes. This has limited their scalability and generalization for large scale real world e-commerce applications. Previous approaches for this task have formulated the attribute value extraction as a Named Entity Recognition (NER) task or a Question Answering (QA) task. In this paper we have presented a generative approach to the attribute value extraction problem using language models. We leverage the large-scale pretraining of the GPT-2 and the T5 text-to-text transformer to create fine-tuned models that can effectively perform this task. We show that a single general model is very effective for this task over a broad set of product attribute values with the open world assumption. Our approach achieves state-of-the-art performance for different attribute classes, which has previously required a diverse set of models.

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ASR Adaptation for E-commerce Chatbots using Cross-Utterance Context and Multi-Task Language Modeling
Ashish Shenoy | Sravan Bodapati | Katrin Kirchhoff

Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) robustness toward slot entities are critical in e-commerce voice assistants that involve monetary transactions and purchases. Along with effective domain adaptation, it is intuitive that cross utterance contextual cues play an important role in disambiguating domain specific content words from speech. In this paper, we investigate various techniques to improve contextualization, content word robustness and domain adaptation of a Transformer-XL neural language model (NLM) to rescore ASR N-best hypotheses. To improve contextualization, we utilize turn level dialogue acts along with cross utterance context carry over. Additionally, to adapt our domain-general NLM towards e-commerce on-the-fly, we use embeddings derived from a finetuned masked LM on in-domain data. Finally, to improve robustness towards in-domain content words, we propose a multi-task model that can jointly perform content word detection and language modeling tasks. Compared to a non-contextual LSTM LM baseline, our best performing NLM rescorer results in a content WER reduction of 19.2% on e-commerce audio test set and a slot labeling F1 improvement of 6.4%.

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Turn-Level User Satisfaction Estimation in E-commerce Customer Service
Runze Liang | Ryuichi Takanobu | Feng-Lin Li | Ji Zhang | Haiqing Chen | Minlie Huang

User satisfaction estimation in the dialogue-based customer service is critical not only for helping developers find the system defects, but also making it possible to get timely human intervention for dissatisfied customers. In this paper, we investigate the problem of user satisfaction estimation in E-commerce customer service. In order to apply the estimator to online services for timely human intervention, we need to estimate the satisfaction score at each turn. However, in actual scenario we can only collect the satisfaction labels for the whole dialogue sessions via user feedback. To this end, we formalize the turn-level satisfaction estimation as a reinforcement learning problem, in which the model can be optimized with only session-level satisfaction labels. We conduct experiments on the dataset collected from a commercial customer service system, and compare our model with the supervised learning models. Extensive experiments show that the proposed method outperforms all the baseline models.

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Keyword Augmentation via Generative Methods
Haoran Shi | Zhibiao Rao | Yongning Wu | Zuohua Zhang | Chu Wang

Keyword augmentation is a fundamental problem for sponsored search modeling and business. Machine generated keywords can be recommended to advertisers for better campaign discoverability as well as used as features for sourcing and ranking models. Generating high-quality keywords is difficult, especially for cold campaigns with limited or even no historical logs; and the industry trend of including multiple products in a single ad campaign is making the problem more challenging. In this paper, we propose a keyword augmentation method based on generative seq2seq model and trie-based search mechanism, which is able to generate high-quality keywords for any products or product lists. We conduct human annotations, offline analysis, and online experiments to evaluate the performance of our method against benchmarks in terms of augmented keyword quality as well as lifted ad exposure. The experiment results demonstrate that our method is able to generate more valid keywords which can serve as an efficient addition to advertiser selected keywords.

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Personalized Entity Resolution with Dynamic Heterogeneous KnowledgeGraph Representations
Ying Lin | Han Wang | Jiangning Chen | Tong Wang | Yue Liu | Heng Ji | Yang Liu | Premkumar Natarajan

The growing popularity of Virtual Assistants poses new challenges for Entity Resolution, the task of linking mentions in text to their referent entities in a knowledge base. Specifically, in the shopping domain, customers tend to mention the entities implicitly (e.g., “organic milk”) rather than use the entity names explicitly, leading to a large number of candidate products. Meanwhile, for the same query, different customers may expect different results. For example, with “add milk to my cart”, a customer may refer to a certain product from his/her favorite brand, while some customers may want to re-order products they regularly purchase. Moreover, new customers may lack persistent shopping history, which requires us to enrich the connections between customers through products and their attributes. To address these issues, we propose a new framework that leverages personalized features to improve the accuracy of product ranking. We first build a cross-source heterogeneous knowledge graph from customer purchase history and product knowledge graph to jointly learn customer and product embeddings. After that, we incorporate product, customer, and history representations into a neural reranking model to predict which candidate is most likely to be purchased by a specific customer. Experiment results show that our model substantially improves the accuracy of the top ranked candidates by 24.6% compared to the state-of-the-art product search model.

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A Semi-supervised Multi-task Learning Approach to Classify Customer Contact Intents
Li Dong | Matthew C. Spencer | Amir Biagi

In the area of customer support, understanding customers’ intents is a crucial step. Machine learning plays a vital role in this type of intent classification. In reality, it is typical to collect confirmation from customer support representatives (CSRs) regarding the intent prediction, though it can unnecessarily incur prohibitive cost to ask CSRs to assign existing or new intents to the mis-classified cases. Apart from the confirmed cases with and without intent labels, there can be a number of cases with no human curation. This data composition (Positives + Unlabeled + multiclass Negatives) creates unique challenges for model development. In response to that, we propose a semi-supervised multi-task learning paradigm. In this manuscript, we share our experience in building text-based intent classification models for a customer support service on an E-commerce website. We improve the performance significantly by evolving the model from multiclass classification to semi-supervised multi-task learning by leveraging the negative cases, domain- and task-adaptively pretrained ALBERT on customer contact texts, and a number of un-curated data with no labels. In the evaluation, the final model boosts the average AUC ROC by almost 20 points compared to the baseline finetuned multiclass classification ALBERT model.

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“Are you calling for the vaporizer you ordered?” Combining Search and Prediction to Identify Orders in Contact Centers
Abinaya K | Shourya Roy

With the growing footprint of ecommerce worldwide, the role of contact center is becoming increasingly crucial for customer satisfaction. To effectively handle scale and manage operational cost, automation through chat-bots and voice-bots are getting rapidly adopted. With customers having multiple, often long list of active orders - the first task of a voice-bot is to identify which one they are calling about. Towards solving this problem which we refer to as order identification, we propose a two-staged real-time technique by combining search and prediction in a sequential manner. In the first stage, analogous to retrieval-based question-answering, a fuzzy search technique uses customized textual similarity measures on noisy transcripts of calls to retrieve the order of interest. The coverage of fuzzy search is limited by no or limited response from customers to voice prompts. Hence, in the second stage, a predictive solution that predict the most likely order a customer is calling about based on certain features of orders is introduced. We compare with multiple relevant techniques based on word embeddings as well as ecommerce product search to show that the proposed approach provides the best performance with 64% coverage and 87% accuracy on a large real-life data-set. A system based on the proposed technique is also deployed in production for a fraction of calls landing in the contact center of a large ecommerce provider; providing real evidence of operational benefits as well as increased customer delight.

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Identifying Hijacked Reviews
Monika Daryani | James Caverlee

Fake reviews and review manipulation are growing problems on online marketplaces globally. Review Hijacking is a new review manipulation tactic in which unethical sellers “hijack” an existing product page (usually one with many positive reviews), then update the product details like title, photo, and description with those of an entirely different product. With the earlier reviews still attached, the new item appears well-reviewed. So far, little knowledge about hijacked reviews has resulted in little academic research and an absence of labeled data. Hence, this paper proposes a three-part study: (i) we propose a framework to generate synthetically labeled data for review hijacking by swapping products and reviews; (ii) then, we evaluate the potential of both a Siamese LSTM network and BERT sequence pair classifier to distinguish legitimate reviews from hijacked ones using this data; and (iii) we then deploy the best performing model on a collection of 31K products (with 6.5 M reviews) in the original data, where we find 100s of previously unknown examples of review hijacking.

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Learning Cross-Task Attribute - Attribute Similarity for Multi-task Attribute-Value Extraction
Mayank Jain | Sourangshu Bhattacharya | Harshit Jain | Karimulla Shaik | Muthusamy Chelliah

Automatic extraction of product attribute-value pairs from unstructured text like product descriptions is an important problem for e-commerce companies. The attribute schema typically varies from one category of products (which will be referred as vertical) to another. This leads to extreme annotation efforts for training of supervised deep sequence labeling models such as LSTM-CRF, and consequently not enough labeled data for some vertical-attribute pairs. In this work, we propose a technique for alleviating this problem by using annotated data from related verticals in a multi-task learning framework. Our approach relies on availability of similar attributes (labels) in another related vertical. Our model jointly learns the similarity between attributes of the two verticals along with the model parameters for the sequence tagging model. The main advantage of our approach is that it does not need any prior annotation of attribute similarity. Our system has been tested with datasets of size more than 10000 from a large e-commerce company in India. We perform detailed experiments to show that our method indeed increases the macro-F1 scores for attribute value extraction in general, and for labels with low training data in particular. We also report top labels from other verticals that contribute towards learning of particular labels.

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Unsupervised Class-Specific Abstractive Summarization of Customer Reviews
Thi Nhat Anh Nguyen | Mingwei Shen | Karen Hovsepian

Large-scale unsupervised abstractive summarization is sorely needed to automatically scan millions of customer reviews in today’s fast-paced e-commerce landscape. We address a key challenge in unsupervised abstractive summarization – reducing generic and uninformative content and producing useful information that relates to specific product aspects. To do so, we propose to model reviews in the context of some topical classes of interest. In particular, for any arbitrary set of topical classes of interest, the proposed model can learn to generate a set of class-specific summaries from multiple reviews of each product without ground-truth summaries, and the only required signal is class probabilities or class label for each review. The model combines a generative variational autoencoder, with an integrated class-correlation gating mechanism and a hierarchical structure capturing dependence among products, reviews and classes. Human evaluation shows that generated summaries are highly relevant, fluent, and representative. Evaluation using a reference dataset shows that our model outperforms state-of-the-art abstractive and extractive baselines.

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Scalable Approach for Normalizing E-commerce Text Attributes (SANTA)
Ravi Shankar Mishra | Kartik Mehta | Nikhil Rasiwasia

In this paper, we present SANTA, a scalable framework to automatically normalize E-commerce attribute values (e.g. “Win 10 Pro”) to a fixed set of pre-defined canonical values (e.g. “Windows 10”). Earlier works on attribute normalization focused on fuzzy string matching (also referred as syntactic matching in this paper). In this work, we first perform an extensive study of nine syntactic matching algorithms and establish that ‘cosine’ similarity leads to best results, showing 2.7% improvement over commonly used Jaccard index. Next, we show that string similarity alone is not sufficient for attribute normalization as many surface forms require going beyond syntactic matching (e.g. “720p” and “HD” are synonyms). While semantic techniques like unsupervised embeddings (e.g. word2vec/fastText) have shown good results in word similarity tasks, we observed that they perform poorly to distinguish between close canonical forms, as these close forms often occur in similar contexts. We propose to learn token embeddings using a twin network with triplet loss. We propose an embedding learning task leveraging raw attribute values and product titles to learn these embeddings in a self-supervised fashion. We show that providing supervision using our proposed task improves over both syntactic and unsupervised embeddings based techniques for attribute normalization. Experiments on a real-world dataset of 50 attributes show that the embeddings trained using our proposed approach obtain 2.3% improvement over best string similarity and 19.3% improvement over best unsupervised embeddings.

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Multimodal Item Categorization Fully Based on Transformer
Lei Chen | Houwei Chou | Yandi Xia | Hirokazu Miyake

The Transformer has proven to be a powerful feature extraction method and has gained widespread adoption in natural language processing (NLP). In this paper we propose a multimodal item categorization (MIC) system solely based on the Transformer for both text and image processing. On a multimodal product data set collected from a Japanese e-commerce giant, we tested a new image classification model based on the Transformer and investigated different ways of fusing bi-modal information. Our experimental results on real industry data showed that the Transformer-based image classifier has performance on par with ResNet-based classifiers and is four times faster to train. Furthermore, a cross-modal attention layer was found to be critical for the MIC system to achieve performance gains over text-only and image-only models.

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Textual Representations for Crosslingual Information Retrieval
Hang Zhang | Liling Tan

In this paper, we explored different levels of textual representations for cross-lingual information retrieval. Beyond the traditional token level representation, we adopted the subword and character level representations for information retrieval that had shown to improve neural machine translation by reducing the out-of-vocabulary issues in machine translation. We found that crosslingual information retrieval performance can be improved by combining search results from subwords and token level representation. Additionally, we improved the search performance by combining and re-ranking the result sets from the different text representations for German, French and Japanese.

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Detect Profane Language in Streaming Services to Protect Young Audiences
Jingxiang Chen | Kai Wei | Xiang Hao

With the rapid growth of online video streaming, recent years have seen increasing concerns about profane language in their content. Detecting profane language in streaming services is challenging due to the long sentences appeared in a video. While recent research on handling long sentences has focused on developing deep learning modeling techniques, little work has focused on techniques on improving data pipelines. In this work, we develop a data collection pipeline to address long sequence of texts and integrate this pipeline with a multi-head self-attention model. With this pipeline, our experiments show the self-attention model offers 12.5% relative accuracy improvement over state-of-the-art distilBERT model on profane language detection while requiring only 3% of parameters. This research designs a better system for informing users of profane language in video streaming services.

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Exploring Inspiration Sets in a Data Programming Pipeline for Product Moderation
Justine Winkler | Simon Brugman | Bas van Berkel | Martha Larson

We carry out a case study on the use of data programming to create data to train classifiers used for product moderation on a large e-commerce platform. Data programming is a recently-introduced technique that uses human-defined rules to generate training data sets without tedious item-by-item hand labeling. Our study investigates methods for allowing product moderators to quickly modify the rules given their knowledge of the domain and, especially, of textual item descriptions. Our results show promise that moderators can use this approach to steer the training data, making possible fast and close control of classifiers that detect policy violations.

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Enhancing Aspect Extraction for Hindi
Arghya Bhattacharya | Alok Debnath | Manish Shrivastava

Aspect extraction is not a well-explored topic in Hindi, with only one corpus having been developed for the task. In this paper, we discuss the merits of the existing corpus in terms of quality, size, sparsity, and performance in aspect extraction tasks using established models. To provide a better baseline corpus for aspect extraction, we translate the SemEval 2014 aspect-based sentiment analysis dataset and annotate the aspects in that data. We provide rigorous guidelines and a replicable methodology for this task. We quantitatively evaluate the translations and annotations using inter-annotator agreement scores. We also evaluate our dataset using state-of-the-art neural aspect extraction models in both monolingual and multilingual settings and show that the models perform far better on our corpus than on the existing Hindi dataset. With this, we establish our corpus as the gold-standard aspect extraction dataset in Hindi.

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Combining semantic search and twin product classification for recognition of purchasable items in voice shopping
Dieu-Thu Le | Verena Weber | Melanie Bradford

The accuracy of an online shopping system via voice commands is particularly important and may have a great impact on customer trust. This paper focuses on the problem of detecting if an utterance contains actual and purchasable products, thus referring to a shopping-related intent in a typical Spoken Language Understanding architecture consist- ing of an intent classifier and a slot detec- tor. Searching through billions of products to check if a detected slot is a purchasable item is prohibitively expensive. To overcome this problem, we present a framework that (1) uses a retrieval module that returns the most rele- vant products with respect to the detected slot, and (2) combines it with a twin network that decides if the detected slot is indeed a pur- chasable item or not. Through various exper- iments, we show that this architecture outper- forms a typical slot detector approach, with a gain of +81% in accuracy and +41% in F1 score.

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Improving Factual Consistency of Abstractive Summarization on Customer Feedback
Yang Liu | Yifei Sun | Vincent Gao

E-commerce stores collect customer feedback to let sellers learn about customer concerns and enhance customer order experience. Because customer feedback often contains redundant information, a concise summary of the feedback can be generated to help sellers better understand the issues causing customer dissatisfaction. Previous state-of-the-art abstractive text summarization models make two major types of factual errors when producing summaries from customer feedback, which are wrong entity detection (WED) and incorrect product-defect description (IPD). In this work, we introduce a set of methods to enhance the factual consistency of abstractive summarization on customer feedback. We augment the training data with artificially corrupted summaries, and use them as counterparts of the target summaries. We add a contrastive loss term into the training objective so that the model learns to avoid certain factual errors. Evaluation results show that a large portion of WED and IPD errors are alleviated for BART and T5. Furthermore, our approaches do not depend on the structure of the summarization model and thus are generalizable to any abstractive summarization systems.

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SupportNet: Neural Networks for Summary Generation and Key Segment Extraction from Technical Support Tickets
Vinayshekhar Bannihatti Kumar | Mohan Yarramsetty | Sharon Sun | Anukul Goel

We improve customer experience and gain their trust when their issues are resolved rapidly with less friction. Existing work has focused on reducing the overall case resolution time by binning a case into predefined categories and routing it to the desired support engineer. However, the actions taken by the engineer during case analysis and resolution are altogether ignored, even though it forms the bulk of the case resolution time. In this work, we propose two systems that enable support engineers to resolve cases faster. The first, a guidance extraction model, mines historical cases and provides technical guidance phrases to the support engineers. The phrases can then be used to educate the customer or to obtain critical information needed to resolve the case and thus minimize the number of correspondences between the engineer and customer. The second, a summarization model, creates an abstractive summary of the case to provide better context to the support engineer. Through quantitative evaluation we obtain an F1 score of 0.64 on the guidance extraction model and a BertScore (F1) of 0.55 on the summarization model.

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Product Review Translation: Parallel Corpus Creation and Robustness towards User-generated Noisy Text
Kamal Kumar Gupta | Soumya Chennabasavaraj | Nikesh Garera | Asif Ekbal

Reviews written by the users for a particular product or service play an influencing role for the customers to make an informative decision. Although online e-commerce portals have immensely impacted our lives, available contents predominantly are in English language- often limiting its widespread usage. There is an exponential growth in the number of e-commerce users who are not proficient in English. Hence, there is a necessity to make these services available in non-English languages, especially in a multilingual country like India. This can be achieved by an in-domain robust machine translation (MT) system. However, the reviews written by the users pose unique challenges to MT, such as misspelled words, ungrammatical constructions, presence of colloquial terms, lack of resources such as in-domain parallel corpus etc. We address the above challenges by presenting an English–Hindi review domain parallel corpus. We train an English–to–Hindi neural machine translation (NMT) system to translate the product reviews available on e-commerce websites. By training the Transformer based NMT model over the generated data, we achieve a score of 33.26 BLEU points for English–to–Hindi translation. In order to make our NMT model robust enough to handle the noisy tokens in the reviews, we integrate a character based language model to generate word vectors and map the noisy tokens with their correct forms. Experiments on four language pairs, viz. English-Hindi, English-German, English-French, and English-Czech show the BLUE scores of 35.09, 28.91, 34.68 and 14.52 which are the improvements of 1.61, 1.05, 1.63 and 1.94, respectively, over the baseline.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Economics and Natural Language Processing

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Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Economics and Natural Language Processing
Udo Hahn | Veronique Hoste | Amanda Stent

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A Fine-Grained Annotated Corpus for Target-Based Opinion Analysis of Economic and Financial Narratives
Jiahui Hu | Patrick Paroubek

In this paper about aspect-based sentiment analysis (ABSA), we present the first version of a fine-grained annotated corpus for target-based opinion analysis (TBOA) to analyze economic activities or financial markets. We have annotated, at an intra-sentential level, a corpus of sentences extracted from documents representative of financial analysts’ most-read materials by considering how financial actors communicate about the evolution of event trends and analyze related publications (news, official communications, etc.). Since we focus on identifying the expressions of opinions related to the economy and financial markets, we annotated the sentences that contain at least one subjective expression about a domain-specific term. Candidate sentences for annotations were randomly chosen from texts of specialized press and professional information channels over a period ranging from 1986 to 2021. Our annotation scheme relies on various linguistic markers like domain-specific vocabulary, syntactic structures, and rhetorical relations to explicitly describe the author’s subjective stance. We investigated and evaluated the recourse to automatic pre-annotation with existing natural language processing technologies to alleviate the annotation workload. Our aim is to propose a corpus usable on the one hand as training material for the automatic detection of the opinions expressed on an extensive range of domain-specific aspects and on the other hand as a gold standard for evaluation TBOA. In this paper, we present our pre-annotation models and evaluations of their performance, introduce our annotation scheme and report on the main characteristics of our corpus.

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EDGAR-CORPUS: Billions of Tokens Make The World Go Round
Lefteris Loukas | Manos Fergadiotis | Ion Androutsopoulos | Prodromos Malakasiotis

We release EDGAR-CORPUS, a novel corpus comprising annual reports from all the publicly traded companies in the US spanning a period of more than 25 years. To the best of our knowledge, EDGAR-CORPUS is the largest financial NLP corpus available to date. All the reports are downloaded, split into their corresponding items (sections), and provided in a clean, easy-to-use JSON format. We use EDGAR-CORPUS to train and release EDGAR-W2V, which are WORD2VEC embeddings for the financial domain. We employ these embeddings in a battery of financial NLP tasks and showcase their superiority over generic GloVe embeddings and other existing financial word embeddings. We also open-source EDGAR-CRAWLER, a toolkit that facilitates downloading and extracting future annual reports.

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The Global Banking Standards QA Dataset (GBS-QA)
Kyunghwan Sohn | Sunjae Kwon | Jaesik Choi

A domain specific question answering (QA) dataset dramatically improves the machine comprehension performance. This paper presents a new Global Banking Standards QA dataset (GBS-QA) in the banking regulation domain. The GBS-QA has three values. First, it contains actual questions from market players and answers from global rule setter, the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS) in the middle of creating and revising banking regulations. Second, financial regulation experts analyze and verify pairs of questions and answers in the annotation process. Lastly, the GBS-QA is a totally different dataset with existing datasets in finance and is applicable to stimulate transfer learning research in the banking regulation domain.

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Corporate Bankruptcy Prediction with Domain-Adapted BERT
Alex Gunwoo Kim | Sangwon Yoon

This study performs BERT-based analysis, which is a representative contextualized language model, on corporate disclosure data to predict impending bankruptcies. Prior literature on bankruptcy prediction mainly focuses on developing more sophisticated prediction methodologies with financial variables. However, in our study, we focus on improving the quality of input dataset. Specifically, we employ BERT model to perform sentiment analysis on MD&A disclosures. We show that BERT outperforms dictionary-based predictions and Word2Vec-based predictions in terms of adjusted R-square in logistic regression, k-nearest neighbor (kNN-5), and linear kernel support vector machine (SVM). Further, instead of pre-training the BERT model from scratch, we apply self-learning with confidence-based filtering to corporate disclosure data (10-K). We achieve the accuracy rate of 91.56% and demonstrate that the domain adaptation procedure brings a significant improvement in prediction accuracy.

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Is Domain Adaptation Worth Your Investment? Comparing BERT and FinBERT on Financial Tasks
Bo Peng | Emmanuele Chersoni | Yu-Yin Hsu | Chu-Ren Huang

With the recent rise in popularity of Transformer models in Natural Language Processing, research efforts have been dedicated to the development of domain-adapted versions of BERT-like architectures. In this study, we focus on FinBERT, a Transformer model trained on text from the financial domain. By comparing its performances with the original BERT on a wide variety of financial text processing tasks, we found continual pretraining from the original model to be the more beneficial option. Domain-specific pretraining from scratch, conversely, seems to be less effective.

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From Stock Prediction to Financial Relevance: Repurposing Attention Weights to Assess News Relevance Without Manual Annotations
Luciano Del Corro | Johannes Hoffart

We present a method to automatically identify financially relevant news using stock price movements and news headlines as input. The method repurposes the attention weights of a neural network initially trained to predict stock prices to assign a relevance score to each headline, eliminating the need for manually labeled training data. Our experiments on the four most relevant US stock indices and 1.5M news headlines show that the method ranks relevant news highly, positively correlated with the accuracy of the initial stock price prediction task.

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Privacy enabled Financial Text Classification using Differential Privacy and Federated Learning
Priyam Basu | Tiasa Singha Roy | Rakshit Naidu | Zumrut Muftuoglu

Privacy is of primary importance when it comes to the Financial Domain as the data is highly confidential and no third party can be having access to it. Natural Language Processing (NLP) techniques can be applied for text classification and entity detection purposes in financial domains like customer feedback sentiment analysis, invoice entity detection, categorisation of financial documents by type etc. Due to the sensitive nature of such data, privacy measures need to be taken for handling and training large models with such data. In this work, we propose a contextualized transformer (BERT and RoBERTa) based text classification model integrated with privacy features like Differential Privacy (DP) and Federated Learning (FL). We present how to privately train NLP models and desirable privacy utility trade-offs and evaluate it on the Financial Phrase Bank dataset.

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Using Word Embedding to Reveal Monetary Policy Explanation Changes
Akira Matsui | Xiang Ren | Emilio Ferrara

Documents have been an essential tool of communication for governments to announce their policy operations. Most policy announcements have taken the form of text to inform their new policies or changes to the public. To understand such policymakers’ communication, many researchers exploit published policy documents. However, the methods well-used in other research domains such as sentiment analysis or topic modeling are not suitable for studying policy communications. Their training corpora and methods are not for policy documents where technical terminologies are used, and sentiment expressions are refrained. We leverage word embedding techniques to extract semantic changes in the monetary policy documents. Our empirical study shows that the policymaker uses different semantics according to the type of documents when they change their policy.

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To What Extent Can English-as-a-Second Language Learners Read Economic News Texts?
Yo Ehara

In decision making in the economic field, an especially important requirement is to rapidly understand news to absorb ever-changing economic situations. Given that most economic news is written in English, the ability to read such information without waiting for a translation is particularly valuable in economics in contrast to other fields. In consideration of this issue, this research investigated the extent to which non-native English speakers are able to read economic news to make decisions accordingly – an issue that has been rarely addressed in previous studies. Using an existing standard dataset as training data, we created a classifier that automatically evaluates the readability of text with high accuracy for English learners. Our assessment of the readability of an economic news corpus revealed that most news texts can be read by intermediate English learners. We also found that in some cases, readability varies considerably depending on the knowledge of certain words specific to the economic field.

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Effective Use of Graph Convolution Network and Contextual Sub-Tree for Commodity News Event Extraction
Meisin Lee | Lay-Ki Soon | Eu-Gene Siew

Event extraction in commodity news is a less researched area as compared to generic event extraction. However, accurate event extraction from commodity news is useful in abroad range of applications such as under-standing event chains and learning event-event relations, which can then be used for commodity price prediction. The events found in commodity news exhibit characteristics different from generic events, hence posing a unique challenge in event extraction using existing methods. This paper proposes an effective use of Graph Convolutional Networks(GCN) with a pruned dependency parse tree, termed contextual sub-tree, for better event ex-traction in commodity news. The event ex-traction model is trained using feature embed-dings from ComBERT, a BERT-based masked language model that was produced through domain-adaptive pre-training on a commodity news corpus. Experimental results show the efficiency of the proposed solution, which out-performs existing methods with F1 scores as high as 0.90. Furthermore, our pre-trained language model outperforms GloVe by 23%, and BERT and RoBERTa by 7% in terms of argument roles classification. For the goal of re-producibility, the code and trained models are made publicly available.

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Cryptocurrency Day Trading and Framing Prediction in Microblog Discourse
Anna Paula Pawlicka Maule | Kristen Johnson

With 56 million people actively trading and investing in cryptocurrency online and globally in 2020, there is an increasing need for automatic social media analysis tools to help understand trading discourse and behavior. In this work, we present a dual natural language modeling pipeline which leverages language and social network behaviors for the prediction of cryptocurrency day trading actions and their associated framing patterns. This pipeline first predicts if tweets can be used to guide day trading behavior, specifically if a cryptocurrency investor should buy, sell, or hold their cryptocurrencies in order to make a profit. Next, tweets are input to an unsupervised deep clustering approach to automatically detect trading framing patterns. Our contributions include the modeling pipeline for this novel task, a new Cryptocurrency Tweets Dataset compiled from influential accounts, and a Historical Price Dataset. Our experiments show that our approach achieves an 88.78% accuracy for day trading behavior prediction and reveals framing fluctuations prior to and during the COVID-19 pandemic that could be used to guide investment actions.

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Extracting Economic Signals from Central Bank Speeches
Maximilian Ahrens | Michael McMahon

Estimating the effects of monetary policy is one of the fundamental research questions in monetary economics. Many economies are facing ultra-low interest rate environments ever since the global financial crisis of 2007-9. The Covid pandemic recently reinforced this situation. In the US and Europe, interest rates are close to (or even below) zero, which limits the scope of traditional monetary policy measures for central banks. Dedicated central bank communication has hence become an increasingly important tool to steer and control market expectations these days. However, incorporating central bank language directly as features into economic models is still a very nascent research area. In particular, the content and effect of central bank speeches has been mostly neglected from monetary policy modelling so far. With our paper, we aim to provide to the research community a novel, monetary policy shock series based on central bank speeches. We use a supervised topic modeling approach that can deal with text as well as numeric covariates to estimate a monetary policy signal dispersion index along three key economic dimensions: GDP, CPI and unemployment. This “dispersion shock” series is not only more frequent than series that classically focus on policy announcement dates, it also opens up the possibility of answering new questions that have up until now been difficult to analyse. For example, do markets form different expectations when facing a “cacophony of policy voices”? Our initial findings for the US point towards the fact that more dispersed or incongruent monetary policy stance communication in the build up to Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) meetings might be associated with stronger subsequent market surprises at FOMC policy announcement time.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Evaluation and Comparison of NLP Systems

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Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Evaluation and Comparison of NLP Systems
Yang Gao | Steffen Eger | Wei Zhao | Piyawat Lertvittayakumjorn | Marina Fomicheva

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Differential Evaluation: a Qualitative Analysis of Natural Language Processing System Behavior Based Upon Data Resistance to Processing
Lucie Gianola | Hicham El Boukkouri | Cyril Grouin | Thomas Lavergne | Patrick Paroubek | Pierre Zweigenbaum

Most of the time, when dealing with a particular Natural Language Processing task, systems are compared on the basis of global statistics such as recall, precision, F1-score, etc. While such scores provide a general idea of the behavior of these systems, they ignore a key piece of information that can be useful for assessing progress and discerning remaining challenges: the relative difficulty of test instances. To address this shortcoming, we introduce the notion of differential evaluation which effectively defines a pragmatic partition of instances into gradually more difficult bins by leveraging the predictions made by a set of systems. Comparing systems along these difficulty bins enables us to produce a finer-grained analysis of their relative merits, which we illustrate on two use-cases: a comparison of systems participating in a multi-label text classification task (CLEF eHealth 2018 ICD-10 coding), and a comparison of neural models trained for biomedical entity detection (BioCreative V chemical-disease relations dataset).

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Validating Label Consistency in NER Data Annotation
Qingkai Zeng | Mengxia Yu | Wenhao Yu | Tianwen Jiang | Meng Jiang

Data annotation plays a crucial role in ensuring your named entity recognition (NER) projects are trained with the right information to learn from. Producing the most accurate labels is a challenge due to the complexity involved with annotation. Label inconsistency between multiple subsets of data annotation (e.g., training set and test set, or multiple training subsets) is an indicator of label mistakes. In this work, we present an empirical method to explore the relationship between label (in-)consistency and NER model performance. It can be used to validate the label consistency (or catches the inconsistency) in multiple sets of NER data annotation. In experiments, our method identified the label inconsistency of test data in SCIERC and CoNLL03 datasets (with 26.7% and 5.4% label mistakes). It validated the consistency in the corrected version of both datasets.

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How Emotionally Stable is ALBERT? Testing Robustness with Stochastic Weight Averaging on a Sentiment Analysis Task
Urja Khurana | Eric Nalisnick | Antske Fokkens

Despite their success, modern language models are fragile. Even small changes in their training pipeline can lead to unexpected results. We study this phenomenon by examining the robustness of ALBERT (Lan et al., 2020) in combination with Stochastic Weight Averaging (SWA)—a cheap way of ensembling—on a sentiment analysis task (SST-2). In particular, we analyze SWA’s stability via CheckList criteria (Ribeiro et al., 2020), examining the agreement on errors made by models differing only in their random seed. We hypothesize that SWA is more stable because it ensembles model snapshots taken along the gradient descent trajectory. We quantify stability by comparing the models’ mistakes with Fleiss’ Kappa (Fleiss, 1971) and overlap ratio scores. We find that SWA reduces error rates in general; yet the models still suffer from their own distinct biases (according to CheckList).

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StoryDB: Broad Multi-language Narrative Dataset
Alexey Tikhonov | Igor Samenko | Ivan P. Yamshchikov

This paper presents StoryDB — a broad multi-language dataset of narratives. StoryDB is a corpus of texts that includes stories in 42 different languages. Every language includes 500+ stories. Some of the languages include more than 20 000 stories. Every story is indexed across languages and labeled with tags such as a genre or a topic. The corpus shows rich topical and language variation and can serve as a resource for the study of the role of narrative in natural language processing across various languages including low resource ones. We also demonstrate how the dataset could be used to benchmark three modern multilanguage models, namely, mDistillBERT, mBERT, and XLM-RoBERTa.

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SeqScore: Addressing Barriers to Reproducible Named Entity Recognition Evaluation
Chester Palen-Michel | Nolan Holley | Constantine Lignos

To address a looming crisis of unreproducible evaluation for named entity recognition, we propose guidelines and introduce SeqScore, a software package to improve reproducibility. The guidelines we propose are extremely simple and center around transparency regarding how chunks are encoded and scored. We demonstrate that despite the apparent simplicity of NER evaluation, unreported differences in the scoring procedure can result in changes to scores that are both of noticeable magnitude and statistically significant. We describe SeqScore, which addresses many of the issues that cause replication failures.

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Trainable Ranking Models to Evaluate the Semantic Accuracy of Data-to-Text Neural Generator
Nicolas Garneau | Luc Lamontagne

In this paper, we introduce a new embedding-based metric relying on trainable ranking models to evaluate the semantic accuracy of neural data-to-text generators. This metric is especially well suited to semantically and factually assess the performance of a text generator when tables can be associated with multiple references and table values contain textual utterances. We first present how one can implement and further specialize the metric by training the underlying ranking models on a legal Data-to-Text dataset. We show how it may provide a more robust evaluation than other evaluation schemes in challenging settings using a dataset comprising paraphrases between the table values and their respective references. Finally, we evaluate its generalization capabilities on a well-known dataset, WebNLG, by comparing it with human evaluation and a recently introduced metric based on natural language inference. We then illustrate how it naturally characterizes, both quantitatively and qualitatively, omissions and hallucinations.

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Evaluation of Unsupervised Automatic Readability Assessors Using Rank Correlations
Yo Ehara

Automatic readability assessment (ARA) is the task of automatically assessing readability with little or no human supervision. ARA is essential for many second language acquisition applications to reduce the workload of annotators, who are usually language teachers. Previous unsupervised approaches manually searched textual features that correlated well with readability labels, such as perplexity scores of large language models. This paper argues that, to evaluate an assessors’ performance, rank-correlation coefficients should be used instead of Pearson’s correlation coefficient (𝜌). In the experiments, we show that its performance can be easily underestimated using Pearson’s 𝜌, which is significantly affected by the linearity of the output readability scores. We also propose a lightweight unsupervised readability assessor that achieved the best performance in both the rank correlations and Pearson’s 𝜌 among all unsupervised assessors compared.

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Testing Cross-Database Semantic Parsers With Canonical Utterances
Heather Lent | Semih Yavuz | Tao Yu | Tong Niu | Yingbo Zhou | Dragomir Radev | Xi Victoria Lin

The benchmark performance of cross-database semantic parsing has climbed steadily in recent years, catalyzed by the wide adoption of pre-trained language models. Yet existing work have shown that state-of-the-art cross-database semantic parsers struggle to generalize to novel user utterances, databases and query structures. To obtain transparent details on the strengths and limitation of these models, we propose a diagnostic testing approach based on controlled synthesis of canonical natural language and SQL pairs. Inspired by the CheckList, we characterize a set of essential capabilities for cross-database semantic parsing models, and detailed the method for synthesizing the corresponding test data. We evaluated a variety of high performing models using the proposed approach, and identified several non-obvious weaknesses across models (e.g. unable to correctly select many columns). Our dataset and code are released as a test suite at http://github.com/hclent/BehaviorCheckingSemPar.

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Writing Style Author Embedding Evaluation
Enzo Terreau | Antoine Gourru | Julien Velcin

Learning authors representations from their textual productions is now widely used to solve multiple downstream tasks, such as classification, link prediction or user recommendation. Author embedding methods are often built on top of either Doc2Vec (Mikolov et al. 2014) or the Transformer architecture (Devlin et al. 2019). Evaluating the quality of these embeddings and what they capture is a difficult task. Most articles use either classification accuracy or authorship attribution, which does not clearly measure the quality of the representation space, if it really captures what it has been built for. In this paper, we propose a novel evaluation framework of author embedding methods based on the writing style. It allows to quantify if the embedding space effectively captures a set of stylistic features, chosen to be the best proxy of an author writing style. This approach gives less importance to the topics conveyed by the documents. It turns out that recent models are mostly driven by the inner semantic of authors’ production. They are outperformed by simple baselines, based on state-of-the-art pretrained sentence embedding models, on several linguistic axes. These baselines can grasp complex linguistic phenomena and writing style more efficiently, paving the way for designing new style-driven author embedding models.

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ESTIME: Estimation of Summary-to-Text Inconsistency by Mismatched Embeddings
Oleg Vasilyev | John Bohannon

We propose a new reference-free summary quality evaluation measure, with emphasis on the faithfulness. The measure is based on finding and counting all probable potential inconsistencies of the summary with respect to the source document. The proposed ESTIME, Estimator of Summary-to-Text Inconsistency by Mismatched Embeddings, correlates with expert scores in summary-level SummEval dataset stronger than other common evaluation measures not only in Consistency but also in Fluency. We also introduce a method of generating subtle factual errors in human summaries. We show that ESTIME is more sensitive to subtle errors than other common evaluation measures.

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Statistically Significant Detection of Semantic Shifts using Contextual Word Embeddings
Yang Liu | Alan Medlar | Dorota Glowacka

Detecting lexical semantic change in smaller data sets, e.g. in historical linguistics and digital humanities, is challenging due to a lack of statistical power. This issue is exacerbated by non-contextual embedding models that produce one embedding per word and, therefore, mask the variability present in the data. In this article, we propose an approach to estimate semantic shift by combining contextual word embeddings with permutation-based statistical tests. We use the false discovery rate procedure to address the large number of hypothesis tests being conducted simultaneously. We demonstrate the performance of this approach in simulation where it achieves consistently high precision by suppressing false positives. We additionally analyze real-world data from SemEval-2020 Task 1 and the Liverpool FC subreddit corpus. We show that by taking sample variation into account, we can improve the robustness of individual semantic shift estimates without degrading overall performance.

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Referenceless Parsing-Based Evaluation of AMR-to-English Generation
Emma Manning | Nathan Schneider

Reference-based automatic evaluation metrics are notoriously limited for NLG due to their inability to fully capture the range of possible outputs. We examine a referenceless alternative: evaluating the adequacy of English sentences generated from Abstract Meaning Representation (AMR) graphs by parsing into AMR and comparing the parse directly to the input. We find that the errors introduced by automatic AMR parsing substantially limit the effectiveness of this approach, but a manual editing study indicates that as parsing improves, parsing-based evaluation has the potential to outperform most reference-based metrics.

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MIPE: A Metric Independent Pipeline for Effective Code-Mixed NLG Evaluation
Ayush Garg | Sammed Kagi | Vivek Srivastava | Mayank Singh

Code-mixing is a phenomenon of mixing words and phrases from two or more languages in a single utterance of speech and text. Due to the high linguistic diversity, code-mixing presents several challenges in evaluating standard natural language generation (NLG) tasks. Various widely popular metrics perform poorly with the code-mixed NLG tasks. To address this challenge, we present a metric in- dependent evaluation pipeline MIPE that significantly improves the correlation between evaluation metrics and human judgments on the generated code-mixed text. As a use case, we demonstrate the performance of MIPE on the machine-generated Hinglish (code-mixing of Hindi and English languages) sentences from the HinGE corpus. We can extend the proposed evaluation strategy to other code-mixed language pairs, NLG tasks, and evaluation metrics with minimal to no effort.

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IST-Unbabel 2021 Submission for the Explainable Quality Estimation Shared Task
Marcos Treviso | Nuno M. Guerreiro | Ricardo Rei | André F. T. Martins

We present the joint contribution of Instituto Superior Técnico (IST) and Unbabel to the Explainable Quality Estimation (QE) shared task, where systems were submitted to two tracks: constrained (without word-level supervision) and unconstrained (with word-level supervision). For the constrained track, we experimented with several explainability methods to extract the relevance of input tokens from sentence-level QE models built on top of multilingual pre-trained transformers. Among the different tested methods, composing explanations in the form of attention weights scaled by the norm of value vectors yielded the best results. When word-level labels are used during training, our best results were obtained by using word-level predicted probabilities. We further improve the performance of our methods on the two tracks by ensembling explanation scores extracted from models trained with different pre-trained transformers, achieving strong results for in-domain and zero-shot language pairs.

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Error Identification for Machine Translation with Metric Embedding and Attention
Raphael Rubino | Atsushi Fujita | Benjamin Marie

Quality Estimation (QE) for Machine Translation has been shown to reach relatively high accuracy in predicting sentence-level scores, relying on pretrained contextual embeddings and human-produced quality scores. However, the lack of explanations along with decisions made by end-to-end neural models makes the results difficult to interpret. Furthermore, word-level annotated datasets are rare due to the prohibitive effort required to perform this task, while they could provide interpretable signals in addition to sentence-level QE outputs. In this paper, we propose a novel QE architecture which tackles both the word-level data scarcity and the interpretability limitations of recent approaches. Sentence-level and word-level components are jointly pretrained through an attention mechanism based on synthetic data and a set of MT metrics embedded in a common space. Our approach is evaluated on the Eval4NLP 2021 shared task and our submissions reach the first position in all language pairs. The extraction of metric-to-input attention weights show that different metrics focus on different parts of the source and target text, providing strong rationales in the decision-making process of the QE model.

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Reference-Free Word- and Sentence-Level Translation Evaluation with Token-Matching Metrics
Christoph Wolfgang Leiter

Many modern machine translation evaluation metrics like BERTScore, BLEURT, COMET, MonoTransquest or XMoverScore are based on black-box language models. Hence, it is difficult to explain why these metrics return certain scores. This year’s Eval4NLP shared task tackles this challenge by searching for methods that can extract feature importance scores that correlate well with human word-level error annotations. In this paper we show that unsupervised metrics that are based on tokenmatching can intrinsically provide such scores. The submitted system interprets the similarities of the contextualized word-embeddings that are used to compute (X)BERTScore as word-level importance scores.

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The Eval4NLP Shared Task on Explainable Quality Estimation: Overview and Results
Marina Fomicheva | Piyawat Lertvittayakumjorn | Wei Zhao | Steffen Eger | Yang Gao

In this paper, we introduce the Eval4NLP-2021 shared task on explainable quality estimation. Given a source-translation pair, this shared task requires not only to provide a sentence-level score indicating the overall quality of the translation, but also to explain this score by identifying the words that negatively impact translation quality. We present the data, annotation guidelines and evaluation setup of the shared task, describe the six participating systems, and analyze the results. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first shared task on explainable NLP evaluation metrics. Datasets and results are available at https://github.com/eval4nlp/SharedTask2021.

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Developing a Benchmark for Reducing Data Bias in Authorship Attribution
Benjamin Murauer | Günther Specht

Authorship attribution is the task of assigning an unknown document to an author from a set of candidates. In the past, studies in this field use various evaluation datasets to demonstrate the effectiveness of preprocessing steps, features, and models. However, only a small fraction of works use more than one dataset to prove claims. In this paper, we present a collection of highly diverse authorship attribution datasets, which better generalizes evaluation results from authorship attribution research. Furthermore, we implement a wide variety of previously used machine learning models and show that many approaches show vastly different performances when applied to different datasets. We include pre-trained language models, for the first time testing them in this field in a systematic way. Finally, we propose a set of aggregated scores to evaluate different aspects of the dataset collection.

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Error-Sensitive Evaluation for Ordinal Target Variables
David Chen | Maury Courtland | Adam Faulkner | Aysu Ezen-Can

Product reviews and satisfaction surveys seek customer feedback in the form of ranked scales. In these settings, widely used evaluation metrics including F1 and accuracy ignore the rank in the responses (e.g., ‘very likely’ is closer to ‘likely’ than ‘not at all’). In this paper, we hypothesize that the order of class values is important for evaluating classifiers on ordinal target variables and should not be disregarded. To test this hypothesis, we compared Multi-class Classification (MC) and Ordinal Regression (OR) by applying OR and MC to benchmark tasks involving ordinal target variables using the same underlying model architecture. Experimental results show that while MC outperformed OR for some datasets in accuracy and F1, OR is significantly better than MC for minimizing the error between prediction and target for all benchmarks, as revealed by error-sensitive metrics, e.g. mean-squared error (MSE) and Spearman correlation. Our findings motivate the need to establish consistent, error-sensitive metrics for evaluating benchmarks with ordinal target variables, and we hope that it stimulates interest in exploring alternative losses for ordinal problems.

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HinGE: A Dataset for Generation and Evaluation of Code-Mixed Hinglish Text
Vivek Srivastava | Mayank Singh

Text generation is a highly active area of research in the computational linguistic community. The evaluation of the generated text is a challenging task and multiple theories and metrics have been proposed over the years. Unfortunately, text generation and evaluation are relatively understudied due to the scarcity of high-quality resources in code-mixed languages where the words and phrases from multiple languages are mixed in a single utterance of text and speech. To address this challenge, we present a corpus (HinGE) for a widely popular code-mixed language Hinglish (code-mixing of Hindi and English languages). HinGE has Hinglish sentences generated by humans as well as two rule-based algorithms corresponding to the parallel Hindi-English sentences. In addition, we demonstrate the in- efficacy of widely-used evaluation metrics on the code-mixed data. The HinGE dataset will facilitate the progress of natural language generation research in code-mixed languages.

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What is SemEval evaluating? A Systematic Analysis of Evaluation Campaigns in NLP
Oskar Wysocki | Malina Florea | Dónal Landers | André Freitas

SemEval is the primary venue in the NLP community for the proposal of new challenges and for the systematic empirical evaluation of NLP systems. This paper provides a systematic quantitative analysis of SemEval aiming to evidence the patterns of the contributions behind SemEval. By understanding the distribution of task types, metrics, architectures, participation and citations over time we aim to answer the question on what is being evaluated by SemEval.

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The UMD Submission to the Explainable MT Quality Estimation Shared Task: Combining Explanation Models with Sequence Labeling
Tasnim Kabir | Marine Carpuat

This paper describes the UMD submission to the Explainable Quality Estimation Shared Task at the EMNLP 2021 Workshop on “Evaluation & Comparison of NLP Systems”. We participated in the word-level and sentence-level MT Quality Estimation (QE) constrained tasks for all language pairs: Estonian-English, Romanian-English, German-Chinese, and Russian-German. Our approach combines the predictions of a word-level explainer model on top of a sentence-level QE model and a sequence labeler trained on synthetic data. These models are based on pre-trained multilingual language models and do not require any word-level annotations for training, making them well suited to zero-shot settings. Our best-performing system improves over the best baseline across all metrics and language pairs, with an average gain of 0.1 in AUC, Average Precision, and Recall at Top-K score.

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Explaining Errors in Machine Translation with Absolute Gradient Ensembles
Melda Eksi | Erik Gelbing | Jonathan Stieber | Chi Viet Vu

Current research on quality estimation of machine translation focuses on the sentence-level quality of the translations. By using explainability methods, we can use these quality estimations for word-level error identification. In this work, we compare different explainability techniques and investigate gradient-based and perturbation-based methods by measuring their performance and required computational efforts. Throughout our experiments, we observed that using absolute word scores boosts the performance of gradient-based explainers significantly. Further, we combine explainability methods to ensembles to exploit the strengths of individual explainers to get better explanations. We propose the usage of absolute gradient-based methods. These work comparably well to popular perturbation-based ones while being more time-efficient.

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Explainable Quality Estimation: CUNI Eval4NLP Submission
Peter Polák | Muskaan Singh | Ondřej Bojar

This paper describes our participating system in the shared task Explainable quality estimation of 2nd Workshop on Evaluation & Comparison of NLP Systems. The task of quality estimation (QE, a.k.a. reference-free evaluation) is to predict the quality of MT output at inference time without access to reference translations. In this proposed work, we first build a word-level quality estimation model, then we finetune this model for sentence-level QE. Our proposed models achieve near state-of-the-art results. In the word-level QE, we place 2nd and 3rd on the supervised Ro-En and Et-En test sets. In the sentence-level QE, we achieve a relative improvement of 8.86% (Ro-En) and 10.6% (Et-En) in terms of the Pearson correlation coefficient over the baseline model.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Fourth Workshop on Fact Extraction and VERification (FEVER)

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Proceedings of the Fourth Workshop on Fact Extraction and VERification (FEVER)
Rami Aly | Christos Christodoulopoulos | Oana Cocarascu | Zhijiang Guo | Arpit Mittal | Michael Schlichtkrull | James Thorne | Andreas Vlachos

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The Fact Extraction and VERification Over Unstructured and Structured information (FEVEROUS) Shared Task
Rami Aly | Zhijiang Guo | Michael Sejr Schlichtkrull | James Thorne | Andreas Vlachos | Christos Christodoulopoulos | Oana Cocarascu | Arpit Mittal

The Fact Extraction and VERification Over Unstructured and Structured information (FEVEROUS) shared task, asks participating systems to determine whether human-authored claims are Supported or Refuted based on evidence retrieved from Wikipedia (or NotEnoughInfo if the claim cannot be verified). Compared to the FEVER 2018 shared task, the main challenge is the addition of structured data (tables and lists) as a source of evidence. The claims in the FEVEROUS dataset can be verified using only structured evidence, only unstructured evidence, or a mixture of both. Submissions are evaluated using the FEVEROUS score that combines label accuracy and evidence retrieval. Unlike FEVER 2018, FEVEROUS requires partial evidence to be returned for NotEnoughInfo claims, and the claims are longer and thus more complex. The shared task received 13 entries, six of which were able to beat the baseline system. The winning team was “Bust a move!”, achieving a FEVEROUS score of 27% (+9% compared to the baseline). In this paper we describe the shared task, present the full results and highlight commonalities and innovations among the participating systems.

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Evidence Selection as a Token-Level Prediction Task
Dominik Stammbach

In Automated Claim Verification, we retrieve evidence from a knowledge base to determine the veracity of a claim. Intuitively, the retrieval of the correct evidence plays a crucial role in this process. Often, evidence selection is tackled as a pairwise sentence classification task, i.e., we train a model to predict for each sentence individually whether it is evidence for a claim. In this work, we fine-tune document level transformers to extract all evidence from a Wikipedia document at once. We show that this approach performs better than a comparable model classifying sentences individually on all relevant evidence selection metrics in FEVER. Our complete pipeline building on this evidence selection procedure produces a new state-of-the-art result on FEVER, a popular claim verification benchmark.

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Graph Reasoning with Context-Aware Linearization for Interpretable Fact Extraction and Verification
Neema Kotonya | Thomas Spooner | Daniele Magazzeni | Francesca Toni

This paper presents an end-to-end system for fact extraction and verification using textual and tabular evidence, the performance of which we demonstrate on the FEVEROUS dataset. We experiment with both a multi-task learning paradigm to jointly train a graph attention network for both the task of evidence extraction and veracity prediction, as well as a single objective graph model for solely learning veracity prediction and separate evidence extraction. In both instances, we employ a framework for per-cell linearization of tabular evidence, thus allowing us to treat evidence from tables as sequences. The templates we employ for linearizing tables capture the context as well as the content of table data. We furthermore provide a case study to show the interpretability our approach. Our best performing system achieves a FEVEROUS score of 0.23 and 53% label accuracy on the blind test data.

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FaBULOUS: Fact-checking Based on Understanding of Language Over Unstructured and Structured information
Mostafa Bouziane | Hugo Perrin | Amine Sadeq | Thanh Nguyen | Aurélien Cluzeau | Julien Mardas

As part of the FEVEROUS shared task, we developed a robust and finely tuned architecture to handle the joint retrieval and entailment on text data as well as structured data like tables. We proposed two training schemes to tackle the hurdles inherent to multi-hop multi-modal datasets. The first one allows having a robust retrieval of full evidence sets, while the second one enables entailment to take full advantage of noisy evidence inputs. In addition, our work has revealed important insights and potential avenue of research for future improvement on this kind of dataset. In preliminary evaluation on the FEVEROUS shared task test set, our system achieves 0.271 FEVEROUS score, with 0.4258 evidence recall and 0.5607 entailment accuracy.

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Team Papelo at FEVEROUS: Multi-hop Evidence Pursuit
Christopher Malon

We develop a system for the FEVEROUS fact extraction and verification task that ranks an initial set of potential evidence and then pursues missing evidence in subsequent hops by trying to generate it, with a “next hop prediction module” whose output is matched against page elements in a predicted article. Seeking evidence with the next hop prediction module continues to improve FEVEROUS score for up to seven hops. Label classification is trained on possibly incomplete extracted evidence chains, utilizing hints that facilitate numerical comparison. The system achieves .281 FEVEROUS score and .658 label accuracy on the development set, and finishes in second place with .259 FEVEROUS score and .576 label accuracy on the test set.

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Modeling Entity Knowledge for Fact Verification
Yang Liu | Chenguang Zhu | Michael Zeng

Fact verification is a challenging task of identifying the truthfulness of given claims based on the retrieval of relevant evidence texts. Many claims require understanding and reasoning over external entity information for precise verification. In this paper, we propose a novel fact verification model using entity knowledge to enhance its performance. We retrieve descriptive text from Wikipedia for each entity, and then encode these descriptions by a smaller lightweight network to be fed into the main verification model. Furthermore, we boost model performance by adopting and predicting the relatedness between the claim and each evidence as additional signals. We demonstrate experimentally on a large-scale benchmark dataset FEVER that our framework achieves competitive results with a FEVER score of 72.89% on the test set.

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Verdict Inference with Claim and Retrieved Elements Using RoBERTa
In-Zu Gi | Ting-Yu Fang | Richard Tzong-Han Tsai

Automatic fact verification has attracted recent research attention as the increasing dissemination of disinformation on social media platforms. The FEVEROUS shared task introduces a benchmark for fact verification, in which a system is challenged to verify the given claim using the extracted evidential elements from Wikipedia documents. In this paper, we propose our 3rd place three-stage system consisting of document retrieval, element retrieval, and verdict inference for the FEVEROUS shared task. By considering the context relevance in the fact extraction and verification task, our system achieves 0.29 FEVEROUS score on the development set and 0.25 FEVEROUS score on the blind test set, both outperforming the FEVEROUS baseline.

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Stance Detection in German News Articles
Laura Mascarell | Tatyana Ruzsics | Christian Schneebeli | Philippe Schlattner | Luca Campanella | Severin Klingler | Cristina Kadar

The widespread use of the Internet and the rapid dissemination of information poses the challenge of identifying the veracity of its content. Stance detection, which is the task of predicting the position of a text in regard to a specific target (e.g. claim or debate question), has been used to determine the veracity of information in tasks such as rumor classification and fake news detection. While most of the work and available datasets for stance detection address short texts snippets extracted from textual dialogues, social media platforms, or news headlines with a strong focus on the English language, there is a lack of resources targeting long texts in other languages. Our contribution in this paper is twofold. First, we present a German dataset of debate questions and news articles that is manually annotated for stance and emotion detection. Second, we leverage the dataset to tackle the supervised task of classifying the stance of a news article with regards to a debate question and provide baseline models as a reference for future work on stance detection in German news articles.

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FANG-COVID: A New Large-Scale Benchmark Dataset for Fake News Detection in German
Justus Mattern | Yu Qiao | Elma Kerz | Daniel Wiechmann | Markus Strohmaier

As the world continues to fight the COVID-19 pandemic, it is simultaneously fighting an ‘infodemic’ – a flood of disinformation and spread of conspiracy theories leading to health threats and the division of society. To combat this infodemic, there is an urgent need for benchmark datasets that can help researchers develop and evaluate models geared towards automatic detection of disinformation. While there are increasing efforts to create adequate, open-source benchmark datasets for English, comparable resources are virtually unavailable for German, leaving research for the German language lagging significantly behind. In this paper, we introduce the new benchmark dataset FANG-COVID consisting of 28,056 real and 13,186 fake German news articles related to the COVID-19 pandemic as well as data on their propagation on Twitter. Furthermore, we propose an explainable textual- and social context-based model for fake news detection, compare its performance to “black-box” models and perform feature ablation to assess the relative importance of human-interpretable features in distinguishing fake news from authentic news.

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Combining sentence and table evidence to predict veracity of factual claims using TaPaS and RoBERTa
Martin Funkquist

This paper describes a method for retrieving evidence and predicting the veracity of factual claims, on the FEVEROUS dataset. The evidence consists of both sentences and table cells. The proposed method is part of the FEVER shared task. It uses similarity scores between TF-IDF vectors to retrieve the textual evidence and similarity scores between dense vectors created by fine-tuned TaPaS models for tabular evidence retrieval. The evidence is passed through a dense neural network to produce a veracity label. The FEVEROUS score for the proposed system is 0.126.

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Automatic Fact-Checking with Document-level Annotations using BERT and Multiple Instance Learning
Aalok Sathe | Joonsuk Park

Automatic fact-checking is crucial for recognizing misinformation spreading on the internet. Most existing fact-checkers break down the process into several subtasks, one of which determines candidate evidence sentences that can potentially support or refute the claim to be verified; typically, evidence sentences with gold-standard labels are needed for this. In a more realistic setting, however, such sentence-level annotations are not available. In this paper, we tackle the natural language inference (NLI) subtask—given a document and a (sentence) claim, determine whether the document supports or refutes the claim—only using document-level annotations. Using fine-tuned BERT and multiple instance learning, we achieve 81.9% accuracy, significantly outperforming the existing results on the WikiFactCheck-English dataset.

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Neural Re-rankers for Evidence Retrieval in the FEVEROUS Task
Mohammed Saeed | Giulio Alfarano | Khai Nguyen | Duc Pham | Raphael Troncy | Paolo Papotti

Computational fact-checking has gained a lot of traction in the machine learning and natural language processing communities. A plethora of solutions have been developed, but methods which leverage both structured and unstructured information to detect misinformation are of particular relevance. In this paper, we tackle the FEVEROUS (Fact Extraction and VERification Over Unstructured and Structured information) challenge which consists of an open source baseline system together with a benchmark dataset containing 87,026 verified claims. We extend this baseline model by improving the evidence retrieval module yielding the best evidence F1 score among the competitors in the challenge leaderboard while obtaining an overall FEVEROUS score of 0.20 (5th best ranked system).

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A Fact Checking and Verification System for FEVEROUS Using a Zero-Shot Learning Approach
Orkun Temiz | Özgün Ozan Kılıç | Arif Ozan Kızıldağ | Tuğba Taşkaya Temizel

In this paper, we propose a novel fact checking and verification system to check claims against Wikipedia content. Our system retrieves relevant Wikipedia pages using Anserini, uses BERT-large-cased question answering model to select correct evidence, and verifies claims using XLNET natural language inference model by comparing it with the evidence. Table cell evidence is obtained through looking for entity-matching cell values and TAPAS table question answering model. The pipeline utilizes zero-shot capabilities of existing models and all the models used in the pipeline requires no additional training. Our system got a FEVEROUS score of 0.06 and a label accuracy of 0.39 in FEVEROUS challenge.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Gender Bias in Natural Language Processing

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Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Gender Bias in Natural Language Processing
Marta Costa-jussa | Hila Gonen | Christian Hardmeier | Kellie Webster

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gENder-IT: An Annotated English-Italian Parallel Challenge Set for Cross-Linguistic Natural Gender Phenomena
Eva Vanmassenhove | Johanna Monti

Languages differ in terms of the absence or presence of gender features, the number of gender classes and whether and where gender features are explicitly marked. These cross-linguistic differences can lead to ambiguities that are difficult to resolve, especially for sentence-level MT systems. The identification of ambiguity and its subsequent resolution is a challenging task for which currently there aren’t any specific resources or challenge sets available. In this paper, we introduce gENder-IT, an English–Italian challenge set focusing on the resolution of natural gender phenomena by providing word-level gender tags on the English source side and multiple gender alternative translations, where needed, on the Italian target side.

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Gender Bias Hidden Behind Chinese Word Embeddings: The Case of Chinese Adjectives
Meichun Jiao | Ziyang Luo

Gender bias in word embeddings gradually becomes a vivid research field in recent years. Most studies in this field aim at measurement and debiasing methods with English as the target language. This paper investigates gender bias in static word embeddings from a unique perspective, Chinese adjectives. By training word representations with different models, the gender bias behind the vectors of adjectives is assessed. Through a comparison between the produced results and a human scored data set, we demonstrate how gender bias encoded in word embeddings differentiates from people’s attitudes.

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Evaluating Gender Bias in Hindi-English Machine Translation
Krithika Ramesh | Gauri Gupta | Sanjay Singh

With language models being deployed increasingly in the real world, it is essential to address the issue of the fairness of their outputs. The word embedding representations of these language models often implicitly draw unwanted associations that form a social bias within the model. The nature of gendered languages like Hindi, poses an additional problem to the quantification and mitigation of bias, owing to the change in the form of the words in the sentence, based on the gender of the subject. Additionally, there is sparse work done in the realm of measuring and debiasing systems for Indic languages. In our work, we attempt to evaluate and quantify the gender bias within a Hindi-English machine translation system. We implement a modified version of the existing TGBI metric based on the grammatical considerations for Hindi. We also compare and contrast the resulting bias measurements across multiple metrics for pre-trained embeddings and the ones learned by our machine translation model.

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Alexa, Google, Siri: What are Your Pronouns? Gender and Anthropomorphism in the Design and Perception of Conversational Assistants
Gavin Abercrombie | Amanda Cercas Curry | Mugdha Pandya | Verena Rieser

Technology companies have produced varied responses to concerns about the effects of the design of their conversational AI systems. Some have claimed that their voice assistants are in fact not gendered or human-like—despite design features suggesting the contrary. We compare these claims to user perceptions by analysing the pronouns they use when referring to AI assistants. We also examine systems’ responses and the extent to which they generate output which is gendered and anthropomorphic. We find that, while some companies appear to be addressing the ethical concerns raised, in some cases, their claims do not seem to hold true. In particular, our results show that system outputs are ambiguous as to the humanness of the systems, and that users tend to personify and gender them as a result.

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Gender Bias in Text: Origin, Taxonomy, and Implications
Jad Doughman | Wael Khreich | Maya El Gharib | Maha Wiss | Zahraa Berjawi

Gender inequality represents a considerable loss of human potential and perpetuates a culture of violence, higher gender wage gaps, and a lack of representation of women in higher and leadership positions. Applications powered by Artificial Intelligence (AI) are increasingly being used in the real world to provide critical decisions about who is going to be hired, granted a loan, admitted to college, etc. However, the main pillars of AI, Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Machine Learning (ML) have been shown to reflect and even amplify gender biases and stereotypes, which are mainly inherited from historical training data. In an effort to facilitate the identification and mitigation of gender bias in English text, we develop a comprehensive taxonomy that relies on the following gender bias types: Generic Pronouns, Sexism, Occupational Bias, Exclusionary Bias, and Semantics. We also provide a bottom-up overview of gender bias, from its societal origin to its spillover onto language. Finally, we link the societal implications of gender bias to their corresponding type(s) in the proposed taxonomy. The underlying motivation of our work is to help enable the technical community to identify and mitigate relevant biases from training corpora for improved fairness in NLP systems.

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Sexism in the Judiciary: The Importance of Bias Definition in NLP and In Our Courts
Noa Baker Gillis

We analyze 6.7 million case law documents to determine the presence of gender bias within our judicial system. We find that current bias detection methods in NLP are insufficient to determine gender bias in our case law database and propose an alternative approach. We show that existing algorithms’ inconsistent results are consequences of prior research’s inconsistent definitions of biases themselves. Bias detection algorithms rely on groups of words to represent bias (e.g., ‘salary,’ ‘job,’ and ‘boss’ to represent employment as a potentially biased theme against women in text). However, the methods to build these groups of words have several weaknesses, primarily that the word lists are based on the researchers’ own intuitions. We suggest two new methods of automating the creation of word lists to represent biases. We find that our methods outperform current NLP bias detection methods. Our research improves the capabilities of NLP technology to detect bias and highlights gender biases present in influential case law. In order to test our NLP bias detection method’s performance, we regress our results of bias in case law against U.S census data of women’s participation in the workforce in the last 100 years.

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Towards Equal Gender Representation in the Annotations of Toxic Language Detection
Elizabeth Excell | Noura Al Moubayed

Classifiers tend to propagate biases present in the data on which they are trained. Hence, it is important to understand how the demographic identities of the annotators of comments affect the fairness of the resulting model. In this paper, we focus on the differences in the ways men and women annotate comments for toxicity, investigating how these differences result in models that amplify the opinions of male annotators. We find that the BERT model associates toxic comments containing offensive words with male annotators, causing the model to predict 67.7% of toxic comments as having been annotated by men. We show that this disparity between gender predictions can be mitigated by removing offensive words and highly toxic comments from the training data. We then apply the learned associations between gender and language to toxic language classifiers, finding that models trained exclusively on female-annotated data perform 1.8% better than those trained solely on male-annotated data, and that training models on data after removing all offensive words reduces bias in the model by 55.5% while increasing the sensitivity by 0.4%.

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Using Gender- and Polarity-Informed Models to Investigate Bias
Samia Touileb | Lilja Øvrelid | Erik Velldal

In this work we explore the effect of incorporating demographic metadata in a text classifier trained on top of a pre-trained transformer language model. More specifically, we add information about the gender of critics and book authors when classifying the polarity of book reviews, and the polarity of the reviews when classifying the genders of authors and critics. We use an existing data set of Norwegian book reviews with ratings by professional critics, which has also been augmented with gender information, and train a document-level sentiment classifier on top of a recently released Norwegian BERT-model. We show that gender-informed models obtain substantially higher accuracy, and that polarity-informed models obtain higher accuracy when classifying the genders of book authors. For this particular data set, we take this result as a confirmation of the gender bias in the underlying label distribution, but in other settings we believe a similar approach can be used for mitigating bias in the model.

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Assessing Gender Bias in Wikipedia: Inequalities in Article Titles
Agnieszka Falenska | Özlem Çetinoğlu

Potential gender biases existing in Wikipedia’s content can contribute to biased behaviors in a variety of downstream NLP systems. Yet, efforts in understanding what inequalities in portraying women and men occur in Wikipedia focused so far only on *biographies*, leaving open the question of how often such harmful patterns occur in other topics. In this paper, we investigate gender-related asymmetries in Wikipedia titles from *all domains*. We assess that for only half of gender-related articles, i.e., articles with words such as *women* or *male* in their titles, symmetrical counterparts describing the same concept for the other gender (and clearly stating it in their titles) exist. Among the remaining imbalanced cases, the vast majority of articles concern sports- and social-related issues. We provide insights on how such asymmetries can influence other Wikipedia components and propose steps towards reducing the frequency of observed patterns.

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Investigating the Impact of Gender Representation in ASR Training Data: a Case Study on Librispeech
Mahault Garnerin | Solange Rossato | Laurent Besacier

In this paper we question the impact of gender representation in training data on the performance of an end-to-end ASR system. We create an experiment based on the Librispeech corpus and build 3 different training corpora varying only the proportion of data produced by each gender category. We observe that if our system is overall robust to the gender balance or imbalance in training data, it is nonetheless dependant of the adequacy between the individuals present in the training and testing sets.

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Generating Gender Augmented Data for NLP
Nishtha Jain | Maja Popović | Declan Groves | Eva Vanmassenhove

Gender bias is a frequent occurrence in NLP-based applications, especially pronounced in gender-inflected languages. Bias can appear through associations of certain adjectives and animate nouns with the natural gender of referents, but also due to unbalanced grammatical gender frequencies of inflected words. This type of bias becomes more evident in generating conversational utterances where gender is not specified within the sentence, because most current NLP applications still work on a sentence-level context. As a step towards more inclusive NLP, this paper proposes an automatic and generalisable re-writing approach for short conversational sentences. The rewriting method can be applied to sentences that, without extra-sentential context, have multiple equivalent alternatives in terms of gender. The method can be applied both for creating gender balanced outputs as well as for creating gender balanced training data. The proposed approach is based on a neural machine translation system trained to ‘translate’ from one gender alternative to another. Both the automatic and manual analysis of the approach show promising results with respect to the automatic generation of gender alternatives for conversational sentences in Spanish.

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Second Order WinoBias (SoWinoBias) Test Set for Latent Gender Bias Detection in Coreference Resolution
Hillary Dawkins

We observe an instance of gender-induced bias in a downstream application, despite the absence of explicit gender words in the test cases. We provide a test set, SoWinoBias, for the purpose of measuring such latent gender bias in coreference resolution systems. We evaluate the performance of current debiasing methods on the SoWinoBias test set, especially in reference to the method’s design and altered embedding space properties. See https://github.com/hillary-dawkins/SoWinoBias.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Natural Language Generation, Evaluation, and Metrics (GEM 2021)

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Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Natural Language Generation, Evaluation, and Metrics (GEM 2021)
Antoine Bosselut | Esin Durmus | Varun Prashant Gangal | Sebastian Gehrmann | Yacine Jernite | Laura Perez-Beltrachini | Samira Shaikh | Wei Xu

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Flesch-Kincaid is Not a Text Simplification Evaluation Metric
Teerapaun Tanprasert | David Kauchak

Sentence-level text simplification is currently evaluated using both automated metrics and human evaluation. For automatic evaluation, a combination of metrics is usually employed to evaluate different aspects of the simplification. Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level (FKGL) is one metric that has been regularly used to measure the readability of system output. In this paper, we argue that FKGL should not be used to evaluate text simplification systems. We provide experimental analyses on recent system output showing that the FKGL score can easily be manipulated to improve the score dramatically with only minor impact on other automated metrics (BLEU and SARI). Instead of using FKGL, we suggest that the component statistics, along with others, be used for posthoc analysis to understand system behavior.

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Human Perception in Natural Language Generation
Lorenzo De Mattei | Huiyuan Lai | Felice Dell’Orletta | Malvina Nissim

We ask subjects whether they perceive as human-produced a bunch of texts, some of which are actually human-written, while others are automatically generated. We use this data to fine-tune a GPT-2 model to push it to generate more human-like texts, and observe that this fine-tuned model produces texts that are indeed perceived more human-like than the original model. Contextually, we show that our automatic evaluation strategy well correlates with human judgements. We also run a linguistic analysis to unveil the characteristics of human- vs machine-perceived language.

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Semantic Similarity Based Evaluation for Abstractive News Summarization
Figen Beken Fikri | Kemal Oflazer | Berrin Yanikoglu

ROUGE is a widely used evaluation metric in text summarization. However, it is not suitable for the evaluation of abstractive summarization systems as it relies on lexical overlap between the gold standard and the generated summaries. This limitation becomes more apparent for agglutinative languages with very large vocabularies and high type/token ratios. In this paper, we present semantic similarity models for Turkish and apply them as evaluation metrics for an abstractive summarization task. To achieve this, we translated the English STSb dataset into Turkish and presented the first semantic textual similarity dataset for Turkish as well. We showed that our best similarity models have better alignment with average human judgments compared to ROUGE in both Pearson and Spearman correlations.

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Shades of BLEU, Flavours of Success: The Case of MultiWOZ
Tomáš Nekvinda | Ondřej Dušek

The MultiWOZ dataset (Budzianowski et al.,2018) is frequently used for benchmarkingcontext-to-response abilities of task-orienteddialogue systems. In this work, we identifyinconsistencies in data preprocessing and re-porting of three corpus-based metrics used onthis dataset, i.e., BLEU score and Inform &Success rates. We point out a few problemsof the MultiWOZ benchmark such as unsat-isfactory preprocessing, insufficient or under-specified evaluation metrics, or rigid database. We re-evaluate 7 end-to-end and 6 policy opti-mization models in as-fair-as-possible setups,and we show that their reported scores cannotbe directly compared. To facilitate compari-son of future systems, we release our stand-alone standardized evaluation scripts. We alsogive basic recommendations for corpus-basedbenchmarking in future works.

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Personalized Response Generation with Tensor Factorization
Zhenghui Wang | Lingxiao Luo | Diyi Yang

Personalized response generation is essential for more human-like conversations. However, how to model user personalization information with no explicit user persona descriptions or demographics still remains under-investigated. To tackle the data sparsity problem and the huge number of users, we utilize tensor factorization to model users’ personalization information with their posting histories. Specifically, we introduce the personalized response embedding for all question-user pairs and form them into a three-mode tensor, decomposed by Tucker decomposition. The personalized response embedding is fed to either the decoder of an LSTM-based Seq2Seq model or a transformer language model to help generate more personalized responses. To evaluate how personalized the generated responses are, we further propose a novel ranking-based metric called Per-Hits@k which measures how likely are the generated responses come from the corresponding users. Results on a large-scale conversation dataset show that our proposed tensor factorization based models generate more personalized and higher quality responses compared to baselines.

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A Review of Human Evaluation for Style Transfer
Eleftheria Briakou | Sweta Agrawal | Ke Zhang | Joel Tetreault | Marine Carpuat

This paper reviews and summarizes human evaluation practices described in 97 style transfer papers with respect to three main evaluation aspects: style transfer, meaning preservation, and fluency. In principle, evaluations by human raters should be the most reliable. However, in style transfer papers, we find that protocols for human evaluations are often underspecified and not standardized, which hampers the reproducibility of research in this field and progress toward better human and automatic evaluation methods.

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GOT: Testing for Originality in Natural Language Generation
Jennifer Brooks | Abdou Youssef

We propose an approach to automatically test for originality in generation tasks where no standard automatic measures exist. Our proposal addresses original uses of language, not necessarily original ideas. We provide an algorithm for our approach and a run-time analysis. The algorithm, which finds all of the original fragments in a ground-truth corpus and can reveal whether a generated fragment copies an original without attribution, has a run-time complexity of theta(nlogn) where n is the number of sentences in the ground truth.

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Evaluating Text Generation from Discourse Representation Structures
Chunliu Wang | Rik van Noord | Arianna Bisazza | Johan Bos

We present an end-to-end neural approach to generate English sentences from formal meaning representations, Discourse Representation Structures (DRSs). We use a rather standard bi-LSTM sequence-to-sequence model, work with a linearized DRS input representation, and evaluate character-level and word-level decoders. We obtain very encouraging results in terms of reference-based automatic metrics such as BLEU. But because such metrics only evaluate the surface level of generated output, we develop a new metric, ROSE, that targets specific semantic phenomena. We do this with five DRS generation challenge sets focusing on tense, grammatical number, polarity, named entities and quantities. The aim of these challenge sets is to assess the neural generator’s systematicity and generalization to unseen inputs.

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Human Evaluation of Creative NLG Systems: An Interdisciplinary Survey on Recent Papers
Mika Hämäläinen | Khalid Alnajjar

We survey human evaluation in papers presenting work on creative natural language generation that have been published in INLG 2020 and ICCC 2020. The most typical human evaluation method is a scaled survey, typically on a 5 point scale, while many other less common methods exist. The most commonly evaluated parameters are meaning, syntactic correctness, novelty, relevance and emotional value, among many others. Our guidelines for future evaluation include clearly defining the goal of the generative system, asking questions as concrete as possible, testing the evaluation setup, using multiple different evaluation setups, reporting the entire evaluation process and potential biases clearly, and finally analyzing the evaluation results in a more profound way than merely reporting the most typical statistics.

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The GEM Benchmark: Natural Language Generation, its Evaluation and Metrics
Sebastian Gehrmann | Tosin Adewumi | Karmanya Aggarwal | Pawan Sasanka Ammanamanchi | Anuoluwapo Aremu | Antoine Bosselut | Khyathi Raghavi Chandu | Miruna-Adriana Clinciu | Dipanjan Das | Kaustubh Dhole | Wanyu Du | Esin Durmus | Ondřej Dušek | Chris Chinenye Emezue | Varun Gangal | Cristina Garbacea | Tatsunori Hashimoto | Yufang Hou | Yacine Jernite | Harsh Jhamtani | Yangfeng Ji | Shailza Jolly | Mihir Kale | Dhruv Kumar | Faisal Ladhak | Aman Madaan | Mounica Maddela | Khyati Mahajan | Saad Mahamood | Bodhisattwa Prasad Majumder | Pedro Henrique Martins | Angelina McMillan-Major | Simon Mille | Emiel van Miltenburg | Moin Nadeem | Shashi Narayan | Vitaly Nikolaev | Andre Niyongabo Rubungo | Salomey Osei | Ankur Parikh | Laura Perez-Beltrachini | Niranjan Ramesh Rao | Vikas Raunak | Juan Diego Rodriguez | Sashank Santhanam | João Sedoc | Thibault Sellam | Samira Shaikh | Anastasia Shimorina | Marco Antonio Sobrevilla Cabezudo | Hendrik Strobelt | Nishant Subramani | Wei Xu | Diyi Yang | Akhila Yerukola | Jiawei Zhou

We introduce GEM, a living benchmark for natural language Generation (NLG), its Evaluation, and Metrics. Measuring progress in NLG relies on a constantly evolving ecosystem of automated metrics, datasets, and human evaluation standards. Due to this moving target, new models often still evaluate on divergent anglo-centric corpora with well-established, but flawed, metrics. This disconnect makes it challenging to identify the limitations of current models and opportunities for progress. Addressing this limitation, GEM provides an environment in which models can easily be applied to a wide set of tasks and in which evaluation strategies can be tested. Regular updates to the benchmark will help NLG research become more multilingual and evolve the challenge alongside models. This paper serves as the description of the data for the 2021 shared task at the associated GEM Workshop.

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Reusable Templates and Guides For Documenting Datasets and Models for Natural Language Processing and Generation: A Case Study of the HuggingFace and GEM Data and Model Cards
Angelina McMillan-Major | Salomey Osei | Juan Diego Rodriguez | Pawan Sasanka Ammanamanchi | Sebastian Gehrmann | Yacine Jernite

Developing documentation guidelines and easy-to-use templates for datasets and models is a challenging task, especially given the variety of backgrounds, skills, and incentives of the people involved in the building of natural language processing (NLP) tools. Nevertheless, the adoption of standard documentation practices across the field of NLP promotes more accessible and detailed descriptions of NLP datasets and models, while supporting researchers and developers in reflecting on their work. To help with the standardization of documentation, we present two case studies of efforts that aim to develop reusable documentation templates – the HuggingFace data card, a general purpose card for datasets in NLP, and the GEM benchmark data and model cards with a focus on natural language generation. We describe our process for developing these templates, including the identification of relevant stakeholder groups, the definition of a set of guiding principles, the use of existing templates as our foundation, and iterative revisions based on feedback.

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Structure-to-Text Generation with Self-Training, Acceptability Classifiers and Context-Conditioning for the GEM Shared Task
Shreyan Bakshi | Soumya Batra | Peyman Heidari | Ankit Arun | Shashank Jain | Michael White

We explore the use of self-training and acceptability classifiers with pre-trained models for natural language generation in structure-to-text settings using three GEM datasets (E2E, WebNLG-en, Schema-Guided Dialog). With the Schema-Guided Dialog dataset, we also experiment with including multiple turns of context in the input. We find that self-training with reconstruction matching along with acceptability classifier filtering can improve semantic correctness, though gains are limited in the full-data setting. With context-conditioning, we find that including multiple turns in the context encourages the model to align with the user’s word and phrasing choices as well as to generate more self-consistent responses. In future versions of the GEM challenge, we encourage the inclusion of few-shot tracks to encourage research on data efficiency.

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NUIG-DSI’s submission to The GEM Benchmark 2021
Nivranshu Pasricha | Mihael Arcan | Paul Buitelaar

This paper describes the submission by NUIG-DSI to the GEM benchmark 2021. We participate in the modeling shared task where we submit outputs on four datasets for data-to-text generation, namely, DART, WebNLG (en), E2E and CommonGen. We follow an approach similar to the one described in the GEM benchmark paper where we use the pre-trained T5-base model for our submission. We train this model on additional monolingual data where we experiment with different masking strategies specifically focused on masking entities, predicates and concepts as well as a random masking strategy for pre-training. In our results we find that random masking performs the best in terms of automatic evaluation metrics, though the results are not statistically significantly different compared to other masking strategies.

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SimpleNER Sentence Simplification System for GEM 2021
K V Aditya Srivatsa | Monil Gokani | Manish Shrivastava

This paper describes SimpleNER, a model developed for the sentence simplification task at GEM-2021. Our system is a monolingual Seq2Seq Transformer architecture that uses control tokens pre-pended to the data, allowing the model to shape the generated simplifications according to user desired attributes. Additionally, we show that NER-tagging the training data before use helps stabilize the effect of the control tokens and significantly improves the overall performance of the system. We also employ pretrained embeddings to reduce data sparsity and allow the model to produce more generalizable outputs.

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System Description for the CommonGen task with the POINTER model
Anna Shvets

In a current experiment we were testing CommonGen dataset for structure-to-text task from GEM living benchmark with the constraint based POINTER model. POINTER represents a hybrid architecture, combining insertion-based and transformer paradigms, predicting the token and the insertion position at the same time. The text is therefore generated gradually in a parallel non-autoregressive manner, given the set of keywords. The pretrained model was fine-tuned on a training split of the CommonGen dataset and the generation result was compared to the validation and challenge splits. The received metrics outputs, which measure lexical equivalence, semantic similarity and diversity, are discussed in details in a present system description.

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Decoding Methods for Neural Narrative Generation
Alexandra DeLucia | Aaron Mueller | Xiang Lisa Li | João Sedoc

Narrative generation is an open-ended NLP task in which a model generates a story given a prompt. The task is similar to neural response generation for chatbots; however, innovations in response generation are often not applied to narrative generation, despite the similarity between these tasks. We aim to bridge this gap by applying and evaluating advances in decoding methods for neural response generation to neural narrative generation. In particular, we employ GPT-2 and perform ablations across nucleus sampling thresholds and diverse decoding hyperparameters—specifically, maximum mutual information—analyzing results over multiple criteria with automatic and human evaluation. We find that (1) nucleus sampling is generally best with thresholds between 0.7 and 0.9; (2) a maximum mutual information objective can improve the quality of generated stories; and (3) established automatic metrics do not correlate well with human judgments of narrative quality on any qualitative metric.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 11th Global Wordnet Conference

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Proceedings of the 11th Global Wordnet Conference
Piek Vossen | Christiane Fellbaum

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On Universal Colexifications
Hongchang Bao | Bradley Hauer | Grzegorz Kondrak

Colexification occurs when two distinct concepts are lexified by the same word. The term covers both polysemy and homonymy. We posit and investigate the hypothesis that no pair of concepts are colexified in every language. We test our hypothesis by analyzing colexification data from BabelNet, Open Multilingual WordNet, and CLICS. The results show that our hypothesis is supported by over 99.9% of colexified concept pairs in these three lexical resources.

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UZWORDNET: A Lexical-Semantic Database for the Uzbek Language
Alessandro Agostini | Timur Usmanov | Ulugbek Khamdamov | Nilufar Abdurakhmonova | Mukhammadsaid Mamasaidov

The results reported in this paper aim to increase the presence of the Uzbek language in the Internet and its usability within IT applications. We describe the initial development of a “word-net” for the Uzbek language compatible to Princeton WordNet. We called it UZWORDNET. In the current version, UZWORDNET contains 28140 synsets, 64389 sense and 20683 words; its estimated accuracy is 75.98%. To the best of our knowledge, it is the largest wordnet for Uzbek existing to date, and the second wordnet developed overall.

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Practical Approach on Implementation of WordNets for South African Languages
Tshephisho Joseph Sefara | Tumisho Billson Mokgonyane | Vukosi Marivate

This paper proposes the implementation of WordNets for five South African languages, namely, Sepedi, Setswana, Tshivenda, isiZulu and isiXhosa to be added to open multilingual WordNets (OMW) on natural language toolkit (NLTK). The African WordNets are converted from Princeton WordNet (PWN) 2.0 to 3.0 to match the synsets in PWN 3.0. After conversion, there were 7157, 11972, 1288, 6380, and 9460 lemmas for Sepedi, Setswana, Tshivenda, isiZulu and isiX- hosa respectively. Setswana, isiXhosa, Sepedi contains more lemmas compared to 8 languages in OMW and isiZulu contains more lemmas compared to 7 languages in OMW. A library has been published for continuous development of African WordNets in OMW using NLTK.

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Homonymy and Polysemy Detection with Multilingual Information
Amir Ahmad Habibi | Bradley Hauer | Grzegorz Kondrak

Deciding whether a semantically ambiguous word is homonymous or polysemous is equivalent to establishing whether it has any pair of senses that are semantically unrelated. We present novel methods for this task that leverage information from multilingual lexical resources. We formally prove the theoretical properties that provide the foundation for our methods. In particular, we show how the One Homonym Per Translation hypothesis of Hauer and Kondrak (2020a) follows from the synset properties formulated by Hauer and Kondrak (2020b). Experimental evaluation shows that our approach sets a new state of the art for homonymy detection.

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Taboo Wordnet
Francis Bond | Merrick Yeu Herng Choo

This paper describes the development of an online lexical resource to help detection systems regulate and curb the use of offensive words online. With the growing prevalence of social media platforms, many conversations are now conducted on- line. The increase of online conversations for leisure, work and socializing has led to an increase in harassment. In particular, we create a specialized sense-based vocabulary of Japanese offensive words for the Open Multilingual Wordnet. This vocabulary expands on an existing list of Japanese offen- sive words and provides categorization and proper linking to synsets within the multilingual wordnet. This paper then discusses the evaluation of the vocabulary as a resource for representing and classifying offensive words and as a possible resource for offensive word use detection in social media.

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Ask2Transformers: Zero-Shot Domain labelling with Pretrained Language Models
Oscar Sainz | German Rigau

In this paper we present a system that exploits different pre-trained Language Models for assigning domain labels to WordNet synsets without any kind of supervision. Furthermore, the system is not restricted to use a particular set of domain labels. We exploit the knowledge encoded within different off-the-shelf pre-trained Language Models and task formulations to infer the domain label of a particular WordNet definition. The proposed zero-shot system achieves a new state-of-the-art on the English dataset used in the evaluation.

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Discriminating Homonymy from Polysemy in Wordnets: English, Spanish and Polish Nouns
Arkadiusz Janz | Marek Maziarz

We propose a novel method of homonymy-polysemy discrimination for three Indo-European Languages (English, Spanish and Polish). Support vector machines and LASSO logistic regression were successfully used in this task, outperforming baselines. The feature set utilised lemma properties, gloss similarities, graph distances and polysemy patterns. The proposed ML models performed equally well for English and the other two languages (constituting testing data sets). The algorithms not only ruled out most cases of homonymy but also were efficacious in distinguishing between closer and indirect semantic relatedness.

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Implementing ASLNet V1.0: Progress and Plans
Colin Lualdi | Elaine Wright | Jack Hudson | Naomi Caselli | Christiane Fellbaum

We report on the development of ASLNet, a wordnet for American Sign Language (ASL). ASLNet V1.0 is currently under construction by mapping easy-to-translate ASL lexical nouns to Princeton WordNet synsets. We describe our data model and mapping approach, which can be extended to any sign language. Analysis of the 390 synsets processed to date indicates the success of our procedure yet also highlights the need to supplement our mapping with the “merge” method. We outline our plans for upcoming work to remedy this, which include use of ASL free-association data.

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Monolingual Word Sense Alignment as a Classification Problem
Sina Ahmadi | John P. McCrae

Words are defined based on their meanings in various ways in different resources. Aligning word senses across monolingual lexicographic resources increases domain coverage and enables integration and incorporation of data. In this paper, we explore the application of classification methods using manually-extracted features along with representation learning techniques in the task of word sense alignment and semantic relationship detection. We demonstrate that the performance of classification methods dramatically varies based on the type of semantic relationships due to the nature of the task but outperforms the previous experiments.

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Extraction of Common-Sense Relations from Procedural Task Instructions using BERT
Viktor Losing | Lydia Fischer | Jörg Deigmöller

Manipulation-relevant common-sense knowledge is crucial to support action-planning for complex tasks. In particular, instrumentality information of what can be done with certain tools can be used to limit the search space which is growing exponentially with the number of viable options. Typical sources for such knowledge, structured common-sense knowledge bases such as ConceptNet or WebChild, provide a limited amount of information which also varies drastically across different domains. Considering the recent success of pre-trained language models such as BERT, we investigate whether common-sense information can directly be extracted from semi-structured text with an acceptable annotation effort. Concretely, we compare the common-sense relations obtained from ConceptNet versus those extracted with BERT from large recipe databases. In this context, we propose a scoring function, based on the WordNet taxonomy to match specific terms to more general ones, enabling a rich evaluation against a set of ground-truth relations.

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The GlobalWordNet Formats: Updates for 2020
John P. McCrae | Michael Wayne Goodman | Francis Bond | Alexandre Rademaker | Ewa Rudnicka | Luis Morgado Da Costa

The Global Wordnet Formats have been introduced to enable wordnets to have a common representation that can be integrated through the Global WordNet Grid. As a result of their adoption, a number of shortcomings of the format were identified, and in this paper we describe the extensions to the formats that address these issues. These include: ordering of senses, dependencies between wordnets, pronunciation, syntactic modelling, relations, sense keys, metadata and RDF support. Furthermore, we provide some perspectives on how these changes help in the integration of wordnets.

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Intrinsically Interlingual: The Wn Python Library for Wordnets
Michael Wayne Goodman | Francis Bond

This paper introduces Wn, a new Python library for working with wordnets. Unlike previous libraries, Wn is built from the beginning to accommodate multiple wordnets — for multiple languages or multiple versions of the same wordnet — while retaining the ability to query and traverse them independently. It is also able to download and incorporate wordnets published online. These features are made possible through Wn’s adoption of standard formats and methods for interoperability, namely the WN-LMF schema (Vossen et al., 2013; Bond et al., 2020) and the Collaborative Interlingual Index (Bond et al., 2016). Wn is open-source, easily available, and well-documented.

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Semantic Analysis of Verb-Noun Derivation in Princeton WordNet
Verginica Mititelu | Svetlozara Leseva | Ivelina Stoyanova

We present here the results of a morphosemantic analysis of the verb-noun pairs in the Princeton WordNet as reflected in the standoff file containing pairs annotated with a set of 14 semantic relations. We have automatically distinguished between zero-derivation and affixal derivation in the data and identified the affixes and manually checked the results. The data show that for each semantic relation an affix prevails in creating new words, although we cannot talk about their specificity with respect to such a relation. Moreover, certain pairs of verb-noun semantic primes are better represented for each semantic relation, and some semantic clusters (in the form of WordNet subtrees) take shape as a result. We thus employ a large-scale data-driven linguistically motivated analysis afforded by the rich derivational and morphosemantic description in WordNet to the end of capturing finer regularities in the process of derivation as represented in the semantic properties of the words involved and as reflected in the structure of the lexicon.

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Building the Turkish FrameNet
Büşra Marşan | Neslihan Kara | Merve Özçelik | Bilge Nas Arıcan | Neslihan Cesur | Aslı Kuzgun | Ezgi Sanıyar | Oğuzhan Kuyrukçu | Olcay Taner Yildiz

FrameNet (Lowe, 1997; Baker et al., 1998; Fillmore and Atkins, 1998; Johnson et al., 2001) is a computational lexicography project that aims to offer insight into the semantic relationships between predicate and arguments. Having uses in many NLP applications, FrameNet has proven itself as a valuable resource. The main goal of this study is laying the foundation for building a comprehensive and cohesive Turkish FrameNet that is compatible with other resources like PropBank (Kara et al., 2020) or WordNet (Bakay et al., 2019; Ehsani, 2018; Ehsani et al., 2018; Parlar et al., 2019; Bakay et al., 2020) in the Turkish language.

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Evaluation of Taxonomy Enrichment on Diachronic WordNet Versions
Irina Nikishina | Natalia Loukachevitch | Varvara Logacheva | Alexander Panchenko

The vast majority of the existing approaches for taxonomy enrichment apply word embeddings as they have proven to accumulate contexts (in a broad sense) extracted from texts which are sufficient for attaching orphan words to the taxonomy. On the other hand, apart from being large lexical and semantic resources, taxonomies are graph structures. Combining word embeddings with graph structure of taxonomy could be of use for predicting taxonomic relations. In this paper we compare several approaches for attaching new words to the existing taxonomy which are based on the graph representations with the one that relies on fastText embeddings. We test all methods on Russian and English datasets, but they could be also applied to other wordnets and languages.

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A (Non)-Perfect Match: Mapping plWordNet onto PrincetonWordNet
Ewa Rudnicka | Wojciech Witkowski | Maciej Piasecki

The paper reports on the methodology and final results of a large-scale synset mapping between plWordNet and Princeton WordNet. Dedicated manual and semi-automatic mapping procedures as well as interlingual relation types for nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are described. The statistics of all types of interlingual relations are also provided.

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Persian SemCor: A Bag of Word Sense Annotated Corpus for the Persian Language
Hossein Rouhizadeh | Mehrnoush Shamsfard | Mahdi Dehghan | Masoud Rouhizadeh

Supervised approaches usually achieve the best performance in the Word Sense Disambiguation problem. However, the unavailability of large sense annotated corpora for many low-resource languages make these approaches inapplicable for them in practice. In this paper, we mitigate this issue for the Persian language by proposing a fully automatic approach for obtaining Persian SemCor (PerSemCor), as a Persian Bag-of-Word (BoW) sense-annotated corpus. We evaluated PerSemCor both intrinsically and extrinsically and showed that it can be effectively used as training sets for Persian supervised WSD systems. To encourage future research on Persian Word Sense Disambiguation, we release the PerSemCor in http://nlp.sbu.ac.ir.

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HisNet: A Polarity Lexicon based on WordNet for Emotion Analysis
Merve Özçelik | Bilge Nas Arıcan | Özge Bakay | Elif Sarmış | Özlem Ergelen | Nilgün Güler Bayezit | Olcay Taner Yıldız

Dictionary-based methods in sentiment analysis have received scholarly attention recently, the most comprehensive examples of which can be found in English. However, many other languages lack polarity dictionaries, or the existing ones are small in size as in the case of SentiTurkNet, the first and only polarity dictionary in Turkish. Thus, this study aims to extend the content of SentiTurkNet by comparing the two available WordNets in Turkish, namely KeNet and TR-wordnet of BalkaNet. To this end, a current Turkish polarity dictionary has been created relying on 76,825 synsets matching KeNet, where each synset has been annotated with three polarity labels, which are positive, negative and neutral. Meanwhile, the comparison of KeNet and TR-wordnet of BalkaNet has revealed their weaknesses such as the repetition of the same senses, lack of necessary merges of the items belonging to the same synset and the presence of redundant narrower versions of synsets, which are discussed in light of their potential to the improvement of the current lexical databases of Turkish.

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Turkish WordNet KeNet
Özge Bakay | Özlem Ergelen | Elif Sarmış | Selin Yıldırım | Bilge Nas Arıcan | Atilla Kocabalcıoğlu | Merve Özçelik | Ezgi Sanıyar | Oğuzhan Kuyrukçu | Begüm Avar | Olcay Taner Yıldız

Currently, there are two available wordnets for Turkish: TR-wordnet of BalkaNet and KeNet. As the more comprehensive wordnet for Turkish, KeNet includes 76,757 synsets. KeNet has both intralingual semantic relations and is linked to PWN through interlingual relations. In this paper, we present the procedure adopted in creating KeNet, give details about our approach in annotating semantic relations such as hypernymy and discuss the language-specific problems encountered in these processes.

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Enriching plWordNet with morphology
Agnieszka Dziob | Wiktor Walentynowicz

In the paper, we present the process of adding morphological information to the Polish WordNet (plWordNet). We describe the reasons for this connection and the intuitions behind it. We also draw attention to the specificity of the Polish morphology. We show in which tasks the morphological information is important and how the methods can be developed by extending them to include combined morphological information based on WordNet.

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Towards Expanding WordNet with Conceptual Frames
Koeva Svetla

The paper presents the project Semantic Network with a Wide Range of Semantic Relations and its main achievements. The ultimate objective of the project is to expand Princeton WordNet with conceptual frames that define the syntagmatic relations of verb synsets and the semantic classes of nouns felicitous to combine with particular verbs. At this stage of the work: a) over 5,000 WordNet verb synsets have been supplied with manually evaluated FrameNet semantic frames, b) 253 semantic types have been manually mapped to the appropriate WordNet concepts providing detailed ontological representation of the semantic classes of nouns.

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OdeNet: Compiling a GermanWordNet from other Resources
Melanie Siegel | Francis Bond

The Princeton WordNet for the English language has been used worldwide in NLP projects for many years. With the OMW initiative, wordnets for different languages of the world are being linked via identifiers. The parallel development and linking allows new multilingual application perspectives. The development of a wordnet for the German language is also in this context. To save development time, existing resources were combined and recompiled. The result was then evaluated and improved. In a relatively short time a resource was created that can be used in projects and continuously improved and extended.

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Comparing Similarity of Words Based on Psychosemantic Experiment and RuWordNet
Valery Solovyev | Natalia Loukachevitch

In the paper we compare the structure of the Russian language thesaurus RuWordNet with the data of a psychosemantic experiment to identify semantically close words. The aim of the study is to find out to what extent the structure of RuWordNet corresponds to the intuitive ideas of native speakers about the semantic proximity of words. The respondents were asked to list synonyms to a given word. As a result of the experiment, we found that the respondents mainly mentioned not only synonyms but words that are in paradigmatic relations with the stimuli. The words of the mental sphere were chosen for the experiment. In 95% of cases, the words characterized in the experiment as semantically close were also close according to the thesaurus. In other cases, additions to the thesaurus were proposed.

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Text Document Clustering: Wordnet vs. TF-IDF vs. Word Embeddings
Michał Marcińczuk | Mateusz Gniewkowski | Tomasz Walkowiak | Marcin Będkowski

In the paper, we deal with the problem of unsupervised text document clustering for the Polish language. Our goal is to compare the modern approaches based on language modeling (doc2vec and BERT) with the classical ones, i.e., TF-IDF and wordnet-based. The experiments are conducted on three datasets containing qualification descriptions. The experiments’ results showed that wordnet-based similarity measures could compete and even outperform modern embedding-based approaches.

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Extracting Synonyms from Bilingual Dictionaries
Mustafa Jarrar | Eman Naser | Muhammad Khalifa | Khaled Shaalan

We present our progress in developing a novel algorithm to extract synonyms from bilingual dictionaries. Identification and usage of synonyms play a significant role in improving the performance of information access applications. The idea is to construct a translation graph from translation pairs, then to extract and consolidate cyclic paths to form bilingual sets of synonyms. The initial evaluation of this algorithm illustrates promising results in extracting Arabic-English bilingual synonyms. In the evaluation, we first converted the synsets in the Arabic WordNet into translation pairs (i.e., losing word-sense memberships). Next, we applied our algorithm to rebuild these synsets. We compared the original and extracted synsets obtaining an F-Measure of 82.3% and 82.1% for Arabic and English synsets extraction, respectively.

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Neural Language Models vs Wordnet-based Semantically Enriched Representation in CST Relation Recognition
Arkadiusz Janz | Maciej Piasecki | Piotr Wątorski

Neural language models, including transformer-based models, that are pre-trained on very large corpora became a common way to represent text in various tasks, including recognition of textual semantic relations, e.g. Cross-document Structure Theory. Pre-trained models are usually fine tuned to downstream tasks and the obtained vectors are used as an input for deep neural classifiers. No linguistic knowledge obtained from resources and tools is utilised. In this paper we compare such universal approaches with a combination of rich graph-based linguistically motivated sentence representation and a typical neural network classifier applied to a task of recognition of CST relation in Polish. The representation describes selected levels of the sentence structure including description of lexical meanings on the basis of the wordnet (plWordNet) synsets and connected SUMO concepts. The obtained results show that in the case of difficult relations and medium size training corpus semantically enriched text representation leads to significantly better results.

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What is on Social Media that is not in WordNet? A Preliminary Analysis on the TwitterAAE Corpus
Cecilia Domingo | Tatiana Gonzalez-Ferrero | Itziar Gonzalez-Dios

Natural Language Processing tools and resources have been so far mainly created and trained for standard varieties of language. Nowadays, with the use of large amounts of data gathered from social media, other varieties and registers need to be processed, which may present other challenges and difficulties. In this work, we focus on English and we present a preliminary analysis by comparing the TwitterAAE corpus, which is annotated for ethnicity, and WordNet by quantifying and explaining the online language that WordNet misses.

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Creating Domain Dependent Turkish WordNet and SentiNet
Bilge Nas Arıcan | Merve Özçelik | Deniz Baran Aslan | Elif Sarmış | Selen Parlar | Olcay Taner Yıldız

A WordNet is a thesaurus that has a structured list of words organized depending on their meanings. WordNet represents word senses, all meanings a single lemma may have, the relations between these senses, and their definitions. Another study within the domain of Natural Language Processing is sentiment analysis. With sentiment analysis, data sets can be scored according to the emotion they contain. In the sentiment analysis we did with the data we received on the Tourism WordNet, we performed a domain-specific sentiment analysis study by annotating the data. In this paper, we propose a method to facilitate Natural Language Processing tasks such as sentiment analysis performed in specific domains via creating a specific-domain subset of an original Turkish dictionary. As the preliminary study, we have created a WordNet for the tourism domain with 14,000 words and validated it on simple tasks.

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Towards a Linking between WordNet and Wikidata
John P. McCrae | David Cillessen

WordNet is the most widely used lexical resource for English, while Wikidata is one of the largest knowledge graphs of entity and concepts available. While, there is a clear difference in the focus of these two resources, there is also a significant overlap and as such a complete linking of these resources would have many uses. We propose the development of such a linking, first by means of the hapax legomenon links and secondly by the use of natural language processing techniques. We show that these can be done with high accuracy but that human validation is still necessary. This has resulted in over 9,000 links being added between these two resources.

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Toward the creation of WordNets for ancient Indo-European languages
Erica Biagetti | Chiara Zanchi | William Michael Short

This paper presents the work in progress toward the creation of a family of WordNets for Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, and Latin. Building on previous attempts in the field, we elaborate these efforts bridging together WordNet relational semantics with theories of meaning from Cognitive Linguistics. We discuss some of the innovations we have introduced to the WordNet architecture, to better capture the polysemy of words, as well as Indo-European language family-specific features. We conclude the paper framing our work within the larger picture of resources available for ancient languages and showing that WordNet-backed search tools have the potential to re-define the kinds of questions that can be asked of ancient language corpora.

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DanNet2: Extending the coverage of adjectives in DanNet based on thesaurus data (project presentation)
Sanni Nimb | Bolette Pedersen | Sussi Olsen

The paper describes work in progress in the DanNet2 project financed by the Carlsberg Foundation. The project aim is to extend the original Danish wordnet, DanNet, in several ways. Main focus is on extension of the coverage and description of the adjectives, a part of speech that was rather sparsely described in the original wordnet. We describe the methodology and initial work of semi-automatically transferring adjectives from the Danish Thesaurus to the wordnet with the aim of easily enlarging the coverage from 3,000 to approx. 13,000 adjectival synsets. Transfer is performed by manually encoding all missing adjectival subsection headwords from the thesaurus and thereafter employing a semi-automatic procedure where adjectives from the same subsection are transferred to the wordnet as either 1) near synonyms to the section’s headword, 2) hyponyms to the section’s headword, or 3) as members of the same synset as the headword. We also discuss how to deal with the problem of multiple representations of the same sense in the thesaurus, and present other types of information from the thesaurus that we plan to integrate, such as thematic and sentiment information.

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Teaching Through Tagging — Interactive Lexical Semantics
Francis Bond | Andrew Devadason | Melissa Rui Lin Teo | Luís Morgado da Costa

In this paper we discuss an ongoing effort to enrich students’ learning by involving them in sense tagging. The main goal is to lead students to discover how we can represent meaning and where the limits of our current theories lie. A subsidiary goal is to create sense tagged corpora and an accompanying linked lexicon (in our case wordnets). We present the results of tagging several texts and suggest some ways in which the tagging process could be improved. Two authors of this paper present their own experience as students. Overall, students reported that they found the tagging an enriching experience. The annotated corpora and changes to the wordnet are made available through the NTU multilingual corpus and associated wordnets (NTU-MC).

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Towards the Addition of Pronunciation Information to Lexical Semantic Resources
Thierry Declerck | Lenka Bajčetić

This paper describes ongoing work aiming at adding pronunciation information to lexical semantic resources, with a focus on open wordnets. Our goal is not only to add a new modality to those semantic networks, but also to mark heteronyms listed in them with the pronunciation information associated with their different meanings. This work could contribute in the longer term to the disambiguation of multi-modal resources, which are combining text and speech.

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Testing agreement between lexicographers: A case of homonymy and polysemy
Marek Maziarz | Francis Bond | Ewa Rudnicka

In this paper we compare Oxford Lexico and Merriam Webster dictionaries with Princeton WordNet with respect to the description of semantic (dis)similarity between polysemous and homonymous senses that could be inferred from them. WordNet lacks any explicit description of polysemy or homonymy, but as a network of linked senses it may be used to compute semantic distances between word senses. To compare WordNet with the dictionaries, we transformed sample entry microstructures of the latter into graphs and cross-linked them with the equivalent senses of the former. We found that dictionaries are in high agreement with each other, if one considers polysemy and homonymy altogether, and in moderate concordance, if one focuses merely on polysemy descriptions. Measuring the shortest path lengths on WordNet gave results comparable to those on the dictionaries in predicting semantic dissimilarity between polysemous senses, but was less felicitous while recognising homonymy.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the EACL Hackashop on News Media Content Analysis and Automated Report Generation

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Proceedings of the EACL Hackashop on News Media Content Analysis and Automated Report Generation
Hannu Toivonen | Michele Boggia

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Adversarial Training for News Stance Detection: Leveraging Signals from a Multi-Genre Corpus.
Costanza Conforti | Jakob Berndt | Marco Basaldella | Mohammad Taher Pilehvar | Chryssi Giannitsarou | Flavio Toxvaerd | Nigel Collier

Cross-target generalization constitutes an important issue for news Stance Detection (SD). In this short paper, we investigate adversarial cross-genre SD, where knowledge from annotated user-generated data is leveraged to improve news SD on targets unseen during training. We implement a BERT-based adversarial network and show experimental performance improvements over a set of strong baselines. Given the abundance of user-generated data, which are considerably less expensive to retrieve and annotate than news articles, this constitutes a promising research direction.

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Related Named Entities Classification in the Economic-Financial Context
Daniel De Los Reyes | Allan Barcelos | Renata Vieira | Isabel Manssour

The present work uses the Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT) to process a sentence and its entities and indicate whether two named entities present in a sentence are related or not, constituting a binary classification problem. It was developed for the Portuguese language, considering the financial domain and exploring deep linguistic representations to identify a relation between entities without using other lexical-semantic resources. The results of the experiments show an accuracy of 86% of the predictions.

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BERT meets Shapley: Extending SHAP Explanations to Transformer-based Classifiers
Enja Kokalj | Blaž Škrlj | Nada Lavrač | Senja Pollak | Marko Robnik-Šikonja

Transformer-based neural networks offer very good classification performance across a wide range of domains, but do not provide explanations of their predictions. While several explanation methods, including SHAP, address the problem of interpreting deep learning models, they are not adapted to operate on state-of-the-art transformer-based neural networks such as BERT. Another shortcoming of these methods is that their visualization of explanations in the form of lists of most relevant words does not take into account the sequential and structurally dependent nature of text. This paper proposes the TransSHAP method that adapts SHAP to transformer models including BERT-based text classifiers. It advances SHAP visualizations by showing explanations in a sequential manner, assessed by human evaluators as competitive to state-of-the-art solutions.

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Extending Neural Keyword Extraction with TF-IDF tagset matching
Boshko Koloski | Senja Pollak | Blaž Škrlj | Matej Martinc

Keyword extraction is the task of identifying words (or multi-word expressions) that best describe a given document and serve in news portals to link articles of similar topics. In this work, we develop and evaluate our methods on four novel data sets covering less-represented, morphologically-rich languages in European news media industry (Croatian, Estonian, Latvian, and Russian). First, we perform evaluation of two supervised neural transformer-based methods, Transformer-based Neural Tagger for Keyword Identification (TNT-KID) and Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT) with an additional Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory Conditional Random Fields (BiLSTM CRF) classification head, and compare them to a baseline Term Frequency - Inverse Document Frequency (TF-IDF) based unsupervised approach. Next, we show that by combining the keywords retrieved by both neural transformer-based methods and extending the final set of keywords with an unsupervised TF-IDF based technique, we can drastically improve the recall of the system, making it appropriate for usage as a recommendation system in the media house environment.

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Zero-shot Cross-lingual Content Filtering: Offensive Language and Hate Speech Detection
Andraž Pelicon | Ravi Shekhar | Matej Martinc | Blaž Škrlj | Matthew Purver | Senja Pollak

We present a system for zero-shot cross-lingual offensive language and hate speech classification. The system was trained on English datasets and tested on a task of detecting hate speech and offensive social media content in a number of languages without any additional training. Experiments show an impressive ability of both models to generalize from English to other languages. There is however an expected gap in performance between the tested cross-lingual models and the monolingual models. The best performing model (offensive content classifier) is available online as a REST API.

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Exploring Linguistically-Lightweight Keyword Extraction Techniques for Indexing News Articles in a Multilingual Set-up
Jakub Piskorski | Nicolas Stefanovitch | Guillaume Jacquet | Aldo Podavini

This paper presents a study of state-of-the-art unsupervised and linguistically unsophisticated keyword extraction algorithms, based on statistic-, graph-, and embedding-based approaches, including, i.a., Total Keyword Frequency, TF-IDF, RAKE, KPMiner, YAKE, KeyBERT, and variants of TextRank-based keyword extraction algorithms. The study was motivated by the need to select the most appropriate technique to extract keywords for indexing news articles in a real-world large-scale news analysis engine. The algorithms were evaluated on a corpus of circa 330 news articles in 7 languages. The overall best F1 scores for all languages on average were obtained using a combination of the recently introduced YAKE algorithm and KPMiner (20.1%, 46.6% and 47.2% for exact, partial and fuzzy matching resp.).

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No NLP Task Should be an Island: Multi-disciplinarity for Diversity in News Recommender Systems
Myrthe Reuver | Antske Fokkens | Suzan Verberne

Natural Language Processing (NLP) is defined by specific, separate tasks, with each their own literature, benchmark datasets, and definitions. In this position paper, we argue that for a complex problem such as the threat to democracy by non-diverse news recommender systems, it is important to take into account a higher-order, normative goal and its implications. Experts in ethics, political science and media studies have suggested that news recommendation systems could be used to support a deliberative democracy. We reflect on the role of NLP in recommendation systems with this specific goal in mind and show that this theory of democracy helps to identify which NLP tasks and techniques can support this goal, and what work still needs to be done. This leads to recommendations for NLP researchers working on this specific problem as well as researchers working on other complex multidisciplinary problems.

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TeMoTopic: Temporal Mosaic Visualisation of Topic Distribution, Keywords, and Context
Shane Sheehan | Saturnino Luz | Masood Masoodian

In this paper we present TeMoTopic, a visualization component for temporal exploration of topics in text corpora. TeMoTopic uses the temporal mosaic metaphor to present topics as a timeline of stacked bars along with related keywords for each topic. The visualization serves as an overview of the temporal distribution of topics, along with the keyword contents of the topics, which collectively support detail-on-demand interactions with the source text of the corpora. Through these interactions and the use of keyword highlighting, the content related to each topic and its change over time can be explored.

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Using contextual and cross-lingual word embeddings to improve variety in template-based NLG for automated journalism
Miia Rämö | Leo Leppänen

In this work, we describe our efforts in improving the variety of language generated from a rule-based NLG system for automated journalism. We present two approaches: one based on inserting completely new words into sentences generated from templates, and another based on replacing words with synonyms. Our initial results from a human evaluation conducted in English indicate that these approaches successfully improve the variety of the language without significantly modifying sentence meaning. We also present variations of the methods applicable to low-resource languages, simulated here using Finnish, where cross-lingual aligned embeddings are harnessed to make use of linguistic resources in a high-resource language. A human evaluation indicates that while proposed methods show potential in the low-resource case, additional work is needed to improve their performance.

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Aligning Estonian and Russian news industry keywords with the help of subtitle translations and an environmental thesaurus
Andraž Repar | Andrej Shumakov

This paper presents the implementation of a bilingual term alignment approach developed by Repar et al. (2019) to a dataset of unaligned Estonian and Russian keywords which were manually assigned by journalists to describe the article topic. We started by separating the dataset into Estonian and Russian tags based on whether they are written in the Latin or Cyrillic script. Then we selected the available language-specific resources necessary for the alignment system to work. Despite the domains of the language-specific resources (subtitles and environment) not matching the domain of the dataset (news articles), we were able to achieve respectable results with manual evaluation indicating that almost 3/4 of the aligned keyword pairs are at least partial matches.

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Exploring Neural Language Models via Analysis of Local and Global Self-Attention Spaces
Blaž Škrlj | Shane Sheehan | Nika Eržen | Marko Robnik-Šikonja | Saturnino Luz | Senja Pollak

Large pretrained language models using the transformer neural network architecture are becoming a dominant methodology for many natural language processing tasks, such as question answering, text classification, word sense disambiguation, text completion and machine translation. Commonly comprising hundreds of millions of parameters, these models offer state-of-the-art performance, but at the expense of interpretability. The attention mechanism is the main component of transformer networks. We present AttViz, a method for exploration of self-attention in transformer networks, which can help in explanation and debugging of the trained models by showing associations between text tokens in an input sequence. We show that existing deep learning pipelines can be explored with AttViz, which offers novel visualizations of the attention heads and their aggregations. We implemented the proposed methods in an online toolkit and an offline library. Using examples from news analysis, we demonstrate how AttViz can be used to inspect and potentially better understand what a model has learned.

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Comment Section Personalization: Algorithmic, Interface, and Interaction Design
Yixue Wang

Comment sections allow users to share their personal experiences, discuss and form different opinions, and build communities out of organic conversations. However, many comment sections present chronological ranking to all users. In this paper, I discuss personalization approaches in comment sections based on different objectives for newsrooms and researchers to consider. I propose algorithmic and interface designs when personalizing the presentation of comments based on different objectives including relevance, diversity, and education/background information. I further explain how transparency, user control, and comment type diversity could help users most benefit from the personalized interacting experience.

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Unsupervised Approach to Multilingual User Comments Summarization
Aleš Žagar | Marko Robnik-Šikonja

User commenting is a valuable feature of many news outlets, enabling them a contact with readers and enabling readers to express their opinion, provide different viewpoints, and even complementary information. Yet, large volumes of user comments are hard to filter, let alone read and extract relevant information. The research on the summarization of user comments is still in its infancy, and human-created summarization datasets are scarce, especially for less-resourced languages. To address this issue, we propose an unsupervised approach to user comments summarization, which uses a modern multilingual representation of sentences together with standard extractive summarization techniques. Our comparison of different sentence representation approaches coupled with different summarization approaches shows that the most successful combinations are the same in news and comment summarization. The empirical results and presented visualisation show usefulness of the proposed methodology for several languages.

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EMBEDDIA Tools, Datasets and Challenges: Resources and Hackathon Contributions
Senja Pollak | Marko Robnik-Šikonja | Matthew Purver | Michele Boggia | Ravi Shekhar | Marko Pranjić | Salla Salmela | Ivar Krustok | Tarmo Paju | Carl-Gustav Linden | Leo Leppänen | Elaine Zosa | Matej Ulčar | Linda Freienthal | Silver Traat | Luis Adrián Cabrera-Diego | Matej Martinc | Nada Lavrač | Blaž Škrlj | Martin Žnidaršič | Andraž Pelicon | Boshko Koloski | Vid Podpečan | Janez Kranjc | Shane Sheehan | Emanuela Boros | Jose G. Moreno | Antoine Doucet | Hannu Toivonen

This paper presents tools and data sources collected and released by the EMBEDDIA project, supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program. The collected resources were offered to participants of a hackathon organized as part of the EACL Hackashop on News Media Content Analysis and Automated Report Generation in February 2021. The hackathon had six participating teams who addressed different challenges, either from the list of proposed challenges or their own news-industry-related tasks. This paper goes beyond the scope of the hackathon, as it brings together in a coherent and compact form most of the resources developed, collected and released by the EMBEDDIA project. Moreover, it constitutes a handy source for news media industry and researchers in the fields of Natural Language Processing and Social Science.

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A COVID-19 news coverage mood map of Europe
Frankie Robertson | Jarkko Lagus | Kaisla Kajava

We present a COVID-19 news dashboard which visualizes sentiment in pandemic news coverage in different languages across Europe. The dashboard shows analyses for positive/neutral/negative sentiment and moral sentiment for news articles across countries and languages. First we extract news articles from news-crawl. Then we use a pre-trained multilingual BERT model for sentiment analysis of news article headlines and a dictionary and word vectors -based method for moral sentiment analysis of news articles. The resulting dashboard gives a unified overview of news events on COVID-19 news overall sentiment, and the region and language of publication from the period starting from the beginning of January 2020 to the end of January 2021.

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Interesting cross-border news discovery using cross-lingual article linking and document similarity
Boshko Koloski | Elaine Zosa | Timen Stepišnik-Perdih | Blaž Škrlj | Tarmo Paju | Senja Pollak

Team Name: team-8 Embeddia Tool: Cross-Lingual Document Retrieval Zosa et al. Dataset: Estonian and Latvian news datasets abstract: Contemporary news media face increasing amounts of available data that can be of use when prioritizing, selecting and discovering new news. In this work we propose a methodology for retrieving interesting articles in a cross-border news discovery setting. More specifically, we explore how a set of seed documents in Estonian can be projected in Latvian document space and serve as a basis for discovery of novel interesting pieces of Latvian news that would interest Estonian readers. The proposed methodology was evaluated by Estonian journalist who confirmed that in the best setting, from top 10 retrieved Latvian documents, half of them represent news that are potentially interesting to be taken by the Estonian media house and presented to Estonian readers.

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EMBEDDIA hackathon report: Automatic sentiment and viewpoint analysis of Slovenian news corpus on the topic of LGBTIQ+
Matej Martinc | Nina Perger | Andraž Pelicon | Matej Ulčar | Andreja Vezovnik | Senja Pollak

We conduct automatic sentiment and viewpoint analysis of the newly created Slovenian news corpus containing articles related to the topic of LGBTIQ+ by employing the state-of-the-art news sentiment classifier and a system for semantic change detection. The focus is on the differences in reporting between quality news media with long tradition and news media with financial and political connections to SDS, a Slovene right-wing political party. The results suggest that political affiliation of the media can affect the sentiment distribution of articles and the framing of specific LGBTIQ+ specific topics, such as same-sex marriage.

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To Block or not to Block: Experiments with Machine Learning for News Comment Moderation
Damir Korencic | Ipek Baris | Eugenia Fernandez | Katarina Leuschel | Eva Sánchez Salido

Today, news media organizations regularly engage with readers by enabling them to comment on news articles. This creates the need for comment moderation and removal of disallowed comments – a time-consuming task often performed by human moderators. In this paper we approach the problem of automatic news comment moderation as classification of comments into blocked and not blocked categories. We construct a novel dataset of annotated English comments, experiment with cross-lingual transfer of comment labels and evaluate several machine learning models on datasets of Croatian and Estonian news comments. Team name: SuperAdmin; Challenge: Detection of blocked comments; Tools/models: CroSloEn BERT, FinEst BERT, 24Sata comment dataset, Ekspress comment dataset.

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Implementing Evaluation Metrics Based on Theories of Democracy in News Comment Recommendation (Hackathon Report)
Myrthe Reuver | Nicolas Mattis

Diversity in news recommendation is important for democratic debate. Current recommendation strategies, as well as evaluation metrics for recommender systems, do not explicitly focus on this aspect of news recommendation. In the 2021 Embeddia Hackathon, we implemented one novel, normative theory-based evaluation metric, “activation”, and use it to compare two recommendation strategies of New York Times comments, one based on user likes and another on editor picks. We found that both comment recommendation strategies lead to recommendations consistently less activating than the available comments in the pool of data, but the editor’s picks more so. This might indicate that New York Times editors’ support a deliberative democratic model, in which less activation is deemed ideal for democratic debate.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the First Workshop on Bridging Human–Computer Interaction and Natural Language Processing

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Proceedings of the First Workshop on Bridging Human–Computer Interaction and Natural Language Processing
Su Lin Blodgett | Michael Madaio | Brendan O'Connor | Hanna Wallach | Qian Yang

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Towards Hybrid Human-Machine Workflow for Natural Language Generation
Neslihan Iskender | Tim Polzehl | Sebastian Möller

In recent years, crowdsourcing has gained much attention from researchers to generate data for the Natural Language Generation (NLG) tools or to evaluate them. However, the quality of crowdsourced data has been questioned repeatedly because of the complexity of NLG tasks and crowd workers’ unknown skills. Moreover, crowdsourcing can also be costly and often not feasible for large-scale data generation or evaluation. To overcome these challenges and leverage the complementary strengths of humans and machine tools, we propose a hybrid human-machine workflow designed explicitly for NLG tasks with real-time quality control mechanisms under budget constraints. This hybrid methodology is a powerful tool for achieving high-quality data while preserving efficiency. By combining human and machine intelligence, the proposed workflow decides dynamically on the next step based on the data from previous steps and given constraints. Our goal is to provide not only the theoretical foundations of the hybrid workflow but also to provide its implementation as open-source in future work.

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Spellchecking for Children in Web Search: a Natural Language Interface Case-study
Casey Kennington | Jerry Alan Fails | Katherine Landau Wright | Maria Soledad Pera

Given the more widespread nature of natural language interfaces, it is increasingly important to understand who are accessing those interfaces, and how those interfaces are being used. In this paper, we explore spellchecking in the context of web search with children as the target audience. In particular, via a literature review we show that, while widely used, popular search tools are ill-designed for children. We then use spellcheckers as a case study to highlight the need for an interdisciplinary approach that brings together natural language processing, education, human-computer interaction to address a known information retrieval problem: query misspelling. We conclude that it is imperative that those for whom the interfaces are designed have a voice in the design process.

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Capturing Covertly Toxic Speech via Crowdsourcing
Alyssa Lees | Daniel Borkan | Ian Kivlichan | Jorge Nario | Tesh Goyal

We study the task of labeling covert or veiled toxicity in online conversations. Prior research has highlighted the difficulty in creating language models that recognize nuanced toxicity such as microaggressions. Our investigations further underscore the difficulty in parsing such labels reliably from raters via crowdsourcing. We introduce an initial dataset, COVERTTOXICITY, which aims to identify and categorize such comments from a refined rater template. Finally, we fine-tune a comment-domain BERT model to classify covertly offensive comments and compare against existing baselines.

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Towards Human-Centered Summarization: A Case Study on Financial News
Tatiana Passali | Alexios Gidiotis | Efstathios Chatzikyriakidis | Grigorios Tsoumakas

Recent Deep Learning (DL) summarization models greatly outperform traditional summarization methodologies, generating high-quality summaries. Despite their success, there are still important open issues, such as the limited engagement and trust of users in the whole process. In order to overcome these issues, we reconsider the task of summarization from a human-centered perspective. We propose to integrate a user interface with an underlying DL model, instead of tackling summarization as an isolated task from the end user. We present a novel system, where the user can actively participate in the whole summarization process. We also enable the user to gather insights into the causative factors that drive the model’s behavior, exploiting the self-attention mechanism. We focus on the financial domain, in order to demonstrate the efficiency of generic DL models for domain-specific applications. Our work takes a first step towards a model-interface co-design approach, where DL models evolve along user needs, paving the way towards human-computer text summarization interfaces.

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Methods for the Design and Evaluation of HCI+NLP Systems
Hendrik Heuer | Daniel Buschek

HCI and NLP traditionally focus on different evaluation methods. While HCI involves a small number of people directly and deeply, NLP traditionally relies on standardized benchmark evaluations that involve a larger number of people indirectly. We present five methodological proposals at the intersection of HCI and NLP and situate them in the context of ML-based NLP models. Our goal is to foster interdisciplinary collaboration and progress in both fields by emphasizing what the fields can learn from each other.

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Context-sensitive evaluation of automatic speech recognition: considering user experience & language variation
Nina Markl | Catherine Lai

Commercial Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) systems tend to show systemic predictive bias for marginalised speaker/user groups. We highlight the need for an interdisciplinary and context-sensitive approach to documenting this bias incorporating perspectives and methods from sociolinguistics, speech & language technology and human-computer interaction in the context of a case study. We argue evaluation of ASR systems should be disaggregated by speaker group, include qualitative error analysis, and consider user experience in a broader sociolinguistic and social context.

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Embodied Multimodal Agents to Bridge the Understanding Gap
Nikhil Krishnaswamy | Nada Alalyani

In this paper we argue that embodied multimodal agents, i.e., avatars, can play an important role in moving natural language processing toward “deep understanding.” Fully-featured interactive agents, model encounters between two “people,” but a language-only agent has little environmental and situational awareness. Multimodal agents bring new opportunities for interpreting visuals, locational information, gestures, etc., which are more axes along which to communicate. We propose that multimodal agents, by facilitating an embodied form of human-computer interaction, provide additional structure that can be used to train models that move NLP systems closer to genuine “understanding” of grounded language, and we discuss ongoing studies using existing systems.

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Putting Humans in the Natural Language Processing Loop: A Survey
Zijie J. Wang | Dongjin Choi | Shenyu Xu | Diyi Yang

How can we design Natural Language Processing (NLP) systems that learn from human feedback? There is a growing research body of Human-in-the-loop (HITL) NLP frameworks that continuously integrate human feedback to improve the model itself. HITL NLP research is nascent but multifarious—solving various NLP problems, collecting diverse feedback from different people, and applying different methods to learn from human feedback. We present a survey of HITL NLP work from both Machine Learning (ML) and Human-computer Interaction (HCI) communities that highlights its short yet inspiring history, and thoroughly summarize recent frameworks focusing on their tasks, goals, human interactions, and feedback learning methods. Finally, we discuss future studies for integrating human feedback in the NLP development loop.

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Can You Distinguish Truthful from Fake Reviews? User Analysis and Assistance Tool for Fake Review Detection
Jeonghwan Kim | Junmo Kang | Suwon Shin | Sung-Hyon Myaeng

Customer reviews are useful in providing an indirect, secondhand experience of a product. People often use reviews written by other customers as a guideline prior to purchasing a product. Such behavior signifies the authenticity of reviews in e-commerce platforms. However, fake reviews are increasingly becoming a hassle for both consumers and product owners. To address this issue, we propose You Only Need Gold (YONG), an essential information mining tool for detecting fake reviews and augmenting user discretion. Our experimental results show the poor human performance on fake review detection, substantially improved user capability given our tool, and the ultimate need for user reliance on the tool.

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Challenges in Designing Games with a Purpose for Abusive Language Annotation
Federico Bonetti | Sara Tonelli

In this paper we discuss several challenges related to the development of a 3D game, whose goal is to raise awareness on cyberbullying while collecting linguistic annotation on offensive language. The game is meant to be used by teenagers, thus raising a number of issues that need to be tackled during development. For example, the game aesthetics should be appealing for players belonging to this age group, but at the same time all possible solutions should be implemented to meet privacy requirements. Also, the task of linguistic annotation should be possibly hidden, adopting so-called orthogonal game mechanics, without affecting the quality of collected data. While some of these challenges are being tackled in the game development, some others are discussed in this paper but still lack an ultimate solution.

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Challenges in Designing Natural Language Interfaces for Complex Visual Models
Henrik Voigt | Monique Meuschke | Kai Lawonn | Sina Zarrieß

Intuitive interaction with visual models becomes an increasingly important task in the field of Visualization (VIS) and verbal interaction represents a significant aspect of it. Vice versa, modeling verbal interaction in visual environments is a major trend in ongoing research in NLP. To date, research on Language & Vision, however, mostly happens at the intersection of NLP and Computer Vision (CV), and much less at the intersection of NLP and Visualization, which is an important area in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI). This paper presents a brief survey of recent work on interactive tasks and set-ups in NLP and Visualization. We discuss the respective methods, show interesting gaps, and conclude by suggesting neural, visually grounded dialogue modeling as a promising potential for NLIs for visual models.

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AfriKI: Machine-in-the-Loop Afrikaans Poetry Generation
Imke van Heerden | Anil Bas

This paper proposes a generative language model called AfriKI. Our approach is based on an LSTM architecture trained on a small corpus of contemporary fiction. With the aim of promoting human creativity, we use the model as an authoring tool to explore machine-in-the-loop Afrikaans poetry generation. To our knowledge, this is the first study to attempt creative text generation in Afrikaans.

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Situation-Specific Multimodal Feature Adaptation
Özge Alacam

In the next decade, we will see a considerable need for NLP models for situated settings where diversity of situations and also different modalities including eye-movements should be taken into account in order to grasp the intention of the user. However, language comprehension in situated settings can not be handled in isolation, where different multimodal cues are inherently present and essential parts of the situations. In this research proposal, we aim to quantify the influence of each modality in interaction with various referential complexities. We propose to encode the referential complexity of the situated settings in the embeddings during pre-training to implicitly guide the model to the most plausible situation-specific deviations. We summarize the challenges of intention extraction and propose a methodological approach to investigate a situation-specific feature adaptation to improve crossmodal mapping and meaning recovery from noisy communication settings.

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Machine Translation Believability
Marianna Martindale | Kevin Duh | Marine Carpuat

Successful Machine Translation (MT) deployment requires understanding not only the intrinsic qualities of MT output, such as fluency and adequacy, but also user perceptions. Users who do not understand the source language respond to MT output based on their perception of the likelihood that the meaning of the MT output matches the meaning of the source text. We refer to this as believability. Output that is not believable may be off-putting to users, but believable MT output with incorrect meaning may mislead them. In this work, we study the relationship of believability to fluency and adequacy by applying traditional MT direct assessment protocols to annotate all three features on the output of neural MT systems. Quantitative analysis of these annotations shows that believability is closely related to but distinct from fluency, and initial qualitative analysis suggests that semantic features may account for the difference.

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Provocation: Contestability in Large-Scale Interactive NLP Systems
Tanushree Mitra

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An IDR Framework of Opportunities and Barriers between HCI and NLP
Nanna Inie | Leon Derczynski

This paper presents a framework of opportunities and barriers/risks between the two research fields Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Human-Computer Interaction (HCI). The framework is constructed by following an interdisciplinary research-model (IDR), combining field-specific knowledge with existing work in the two fields. The resulting framework is intended as a departure point for discussion and inspiration for research collaborations.

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RE-AIMing Predictive Text
Matthew Higgs | Claire McCallum | Selina Sutton | Mark Warner

Our increasing reliance on mobile applications means much of our communication is mediated with the support of predictive text systems. How do these systems impact interpersonal communication and broader society? In what ways are predictive text systems harmful, to whom, and why? In this paper, we focus on predictive text systems on mobile devices and attempt to answer these questions. We introduce the concept of a ‘text entry intervention’ as a way to evaluate predictive text systems through an interventional lens, and consider the Reach, Effectiveness, Adoption, Implementation, and Maintenance (RE-AIM) of predictive text systems. We finish with a discussion of opportunities for NLP.

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How do people interact with biased text prediction models while writing?
Advait Bhat | Saaket Agashe | Anirudha Joshi

Recent studies have shown that a bias in thetext suggestions system can percolate in theuser’s writing. In this pilot study, we ask thequestion: How do people interact with text pre-diction models, in an inline next phrase sugges-tion interface and how does introducing senti-ment bias in the text prediction model affecttheir writing? We present a pilot study as afirst step to answer this question.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Workshop on Human Evaluation of NLP Systems (HumEval)

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Proceedings of the Workshop on Human Evaluation of NLP Systems (HumEval)
Anya Belz | Shubham Agarwal | Yvette Graham | Ehud Reiter | Anastasia Shimorina

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It’s Commonsense, isn’t it? Demystifying Human Evaluations in Commonsense-Enhanced NLG Systems
Miruna-Adriana Clinciu | Dimitra Gkatzia | Saad Mahamood

Common sense is an integral part of human cognition which allows us to make sound decisions, communicate effectively with others and interpret situations and utterances. Endowing AI systems with commonsense knowledge capabilities will help us get closer to creating systems that exhibit human intelligence. Recent efforts in Natural Language Generation (NLG) have focused on incorporating commonsense knowledge through large-scale pre-trained language models or by incorporating external knowledge bases. Such systems exhibit reasoning capabilities without common sense being explicitly encoded in the training set. These systems require careful evaluation, as they incorporate additional resources during training which adds additional sources of errors. Additionally, human evaluation of such systems can have significant variation, making it impossible to compare different systems and define baselines. This paper aims to demystify human evaluations of commonsense-enhanced NLG systems by proposing the Commonsense Evaluation Card (CEC), a set of recommendations for evaluation reporting of commonsense-enhanced NLG systems, underpinned by an extensive analysis of human evaluations reported in the recent literature.

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Estimating Subjective Crowd-Evaluations as an Additional Objective to Improve Natural Language Generation
Jakob Nyberg | Maike Paetzel | Ramesh Manuvinakurike

Human ratings are one of the most prevalent methods to evaluate the performance of NLP (natural language processing) algorithms. Similarly, it is common to measure the quality of sentences generated by a natural language generation model using human raters. In this paper we argue for exploring the use of subjective evaluations within the process of training language generation models in a multi-task learning setting. As a case study, we use a crowd-authored dialogue corpus to fine-tune six different language generation models. Two of these models incorporate multi-task learning and use subjective ratings of lines as part of an explicit learning goal. A human evaluation of the generated dialogue lines reveals that utterances generated by the multi-tasking models were subjectively rated as the most typical, most moving the conversation forward, and least offensive. Based on these promising first results, we discuss future research directions for incorporating subjective human evaluations into language model training and to hence keep the human user in the loop during the development process.

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Trading Off Diversity and Quality in Natural Language Generation
Hugh Zhang | Daniel Duckworth | Daphne Ippolito | Arvind Neelakantan

For open-ended language generation tasks such as storytelling or dialogue, choosing the right decoding algorithm is vital for controlling the tradeoff between generation quality and diversity. However, there presently exists no consensus on which decoding procedure is best or even the criteria by which to compare them. In this paper, we cast decoding as a tradeoff between response quality and diversity, and we perform the first large-scale evaluation of decoding methods along the entire quality-diversity spectrum. Our experiments confirm the existence of the likelihood trap: the counter-intuitive observation that high likelihood sequences are often surprisingly low quality. We also find that when diversity is a priority, all methods perform similarly, but when quality is viewed as more important, nucleus sampling (Holtzman et al., 2019) outperforms all other evaluated decoding algorithms.

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Towards Document-Level Human MT Evaluation: On the Issues of Annotator Agreement, Effort and Misevaluation
Sheila Castilho

Document-level human evaluation of machine translation (MT) has been raising interest in the community. However, little is known about the issues of using document-level methodologies to assess MT quality. In this article, we compare the inter-annotator agreement (IAA) scores, the effort to assess the quality in different document-level methodologies, and the issue of misevaluation when sentences are evaluated out of context.

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Is This Translation Error Critical?: Classification-Based Human and Automatic Machine Translation Evaluation Focusing on Critical Errors
Katsuhito Sudoh | Kosuke Takahashi | Satoshi Nakamura

This paper discusses a classification-based approach to machine translation evaluation, as opposed to a common regression-based approach in the WMT Metrics task. Recent machine translation usually works well but sometimes makes critical errors due to just a few wrong word choices. Our classification-based approach focuses on such errors using several error type labels, for practical machine translation evaluation in an age of neural machine translation. We made additional annotations on the WMT 2015-2017 Metrics datasets with fluency and adequacy labels to distinguish different types of translation errors from syntactic and semantic viewpoints. We present our human evaluation criteria for the corpus development and automatic evaluation experiments using the corpus. The human evaluation corpus will be publicly available upon publication.

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Towards Objectively Evaluating the Quality of Generated Medical Summaries
Francesco Moramarco | Damir Juric | Aleksandar Savkov | Ehud Reiter

We propose a method for evaluating the quality of generated text by asking evaluators to count facts, and computing precision, recall, f-score, and accuracy from the raw counts. We believe this approach leads to a more objective and easier to reproduce evaluation. We apply this to the task of medical report summarisation, where measuring objective quality and accuracy is of paramount importance.

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A Preliminary Study on Evaluating Consultation Notes With Post-Editing
Francesco Moramarco | Alex Papadopoulos Korfiatis | Aleksandar Savkov | Ehud Reiter

Automatic summarisation has the potential to aid physicians in streamlining clerical tasks such as note taking. But it is notoriously difficult to evaluate these systems and demonstrate that they are safe to be used in a clinical setting. To circumvent this issue, we propose a semi-automatic approach whereby physicians post-edit generated notes before submitting them. We conduct a preliminary study on the time saving of automatically generated consultation notes with post-editing. Our evaluators are asked to listen to mock consultations and to post-edit three generated notes. We time this and find that it is faster than writing the note from scratch. We present insights and lessons learnt from this experiment.

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The Great Misalignment Problem in Human Evaluation of NLP Methods
Mika Hämäläinen | Khalid Alnajjar

We outline the Great Misalignment Problem in natural language processing research, this means simply that the problem definition is not in line with the method proposed and the human evaluation is not in line with the definition nor the method. We study this misalignment problem by surveying 10 randomly sampled papers published in ACL 2020 that report results with human evaluation. Our results show that only one paper was fully in line in terms of problem definition, method and evaluation. Only two papers presented a human evaluation that was in line with what was modeled in the method. These results highlight that the Great Misalignment Problem is a major one and it affects the validity and reproducibility of results obtained by a human evaluation.

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A View From the Crowd: Evaluation Challenges for Time-Offset Interaction Applications
Alberto Chierici | Nizar Habash

Dialogue systems like chatbots, and tasks like question-answering (QA) have gained traction in recent years; yet evaluating such systems remains difficult. Reasons include the great variety in contexts and use cases for these systems as well as the high cost of human evaluation. In this paper, we focus on a specific type of dialogue systems: Time-Offset Interaction Applications (TOIAs) are intelligent, conversational software that simulates face-to-face conversations between humans and pre-recorded human avatars. Under the constraint that a TOIA is a single output system interacting with users with different expectations, we identify two challenges: first, how do we define a ‘good’ answer? and second, what’s an appropriate metric to use? We explore both challenges through the creation of a novel dataset that identifies multiple good answers to specific TOIA questions through the help of Amazon Mechanical Turk workers. This ‘view from the crowd’ allows us to study the variations of how TOIA interrogators perceive its answers. Our contributions include the annotated dataset that we make publicly available and the proposal of Success Rate @k as an evaluation metric that is more appropriate than the traditional QA’s and information retrieval’s metrics.

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Reliability of Human Evaluation for Text Summarization: Lessons Learned and Challenges Ahead
Neslihan Iskender | Tim Polzehl | Sebastian Möller

Only a small portion of research papers with human evaluation for text summarization provide information about the participant demographics, task design, and experiment protocol. Additionally, many researchers use human evaluation as gold standard without questioning the reliability or investigating the factors that might affect the reliability of the human evaluation. As a result, there is a lack of best practices for reliable human summarization evaluation grounded by empirical evidence. To investigate human evaluation reliability, we conduct a series of human evaluation experiments, provide an overview of participant demographics, task design, experimental set-up and compare the results from different experiments. Based on our empirical analysis, we provide guidelines to ensure the reliability of expert and non-expert evaluations, and we determine the factors that might affect the reliability of the human evaluation.

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On User Interfaces for Large-Scale Document-Level Human Evaluation of Machine Translation Outputs
Roman Grundkiewicz | Marcin Junczys-Dowmunt | Christian Federmann | Tom Kocmi

Recent studies emphasize the need of document context in human evaluation of machine translations, but little research has been done on the impact of user interfaces on annotator productivity and the reliability of assessments. In this work, we compare human assessment data from the last two WMT evaluation campaigns collected via two different methods for document-level evaluation. Our analysis shows that a document-centric approach to evaluation where the annotator is presented with the entire document context on a screen leads to higher quality segment and document level assessments. It improves the correlation between segment and document scores and increases inter-annotator agreement for document scores but is considerably more time consuming for annotators.

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Eliciting Explicit Knowledge From Domain Experts in Direct Intrinsic Evaluation of Word Embeddings for Specialized Domains
Goya van Boven | Jelke Bloem

We evaluate the use of direct intrinsic word embedding evaluation tasks for specialized language. Our case study is philosophical text: human expert judgements on the relatedness of philosophical terms are elicited using a synonym detection task and a coherence task. Uniquely for our task, experts must rely on explicit knowledge and cannot use their linguistic intuition, which may differ from that of the philosopher. We find that inter-rater agreement rates are similar to those of more conventional semantic annotation tasks, suggesting that these tasks can be used to evaluate word embeddings of text types for which implicit knowledge may not suffice.

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Detecting Post-Edited References and Their Effect on Human Evaluation
Věra Kloudová | Ondřej Bojar | Martin Popel

This paper provides a quick overview of possible methods how to detect that reference translations were actually created by post-editing an MT system. Two methods based on automatic metrics are presented: BLEU difference between the suspected MT and some other good MT and BLEU difference using additional references. These two methods revealed a suspicion that the WMT 2020 Czech reference is based on MT. The suspicion was confirmed in a manual analysis by finding concrete proofs of the post-editing procedure in particular sentences. Finally, a typology of post-editing changes is presented where typical errors or changes made by the post-editor or errors adopted from the MT are classified.

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A Case Study of Efficacy and Challenges in Practical Human-in-Loop Evaluation of NLP Systems Using Checklist
Shaily Bhatt | Rahul Jain | Sandipan Dandapat | Sunayana Sitaram

Despite state-of-the-art performance, NLP systems can be fragile in real-world situations. This is often due to insufficient understanding of the capabilities and limitations of models and the heavy reliance on standard evaluation benchmarks. Research into non-standard evaluation to mitigate this brittleness is gaining increasing attention. Notably, the behavioral testing principle ‘Checklist’, which decouples testing from implementation revealed significant failures in state-of-the-art models for multiple tasks. In this paper, we present a case study of using Checklist in a practical scenario. We conduct experiments for evaluating an offensive content detection system and use a data augmentation technique for improving the model using insights from Checklist. We lay out the challenges and open questions based on our observations of using Checklist for human-in-loop evaluation and improvement of NLP systems. Disclaimer: The paper contains examples of content with offensive language. The examples do not represent the views of the authors or their employers towards any person(s), group(s), practice(s), or entity/entities.

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Interrater Disagreement Resolution: A Systematic Procedure to Reach Consensus in Annotation Tasks
Yvette Oortwijn | Thijs Ossenkoppele | Arianna Betti

We present a systematic procedure for interrater disagreement resolution. The procedure is general, but of particular use in multiple-annotator tasks geared towards ground truth construction. We motivate our proposal by arguing that, barring cases in which the researchers’ goal is to elicit different viewpoints, interrater disagreement is a sign of poor quality in the design or the description of a task. Consensus among annotators, we maintain, should be striven for, through a systematic procedure for disagreement resolution such as the one we describe.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Insights from Negative Results in NLP

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Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Insights from Negative Results in NLP
João Sedoc | Anna Rogers | Anna Rumshisky | Shabnam Tafreshi

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Corrected CBOW Performs as well as Skip-gram
Ozan İrsoy | Adrian Benton | Karl Stratos

Mikolov et al. (2013a) observed that continuous bag-of-words (CBOW) word embeddings tend to underperform Skip-gram (SG) embeddings, and this finding has been reported in subsequent works. We find that these observations are driven not by fundamental differences in their training objectives, but more likely on faulty negative sampling CBOW implementations in popular libraries such as the official implementation, word2vec.c, and Gensim. We show that after correcting a bug in the CBOW gradient update, one can learn CBOW word embeddings that are fully competitive with SG on various intrinsic and extrinsic tasks, while being many times faster to train.

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Does Commonsense help in detecting Sarcasm?
Somnath Basu Roy Chowdhury | Snigdha Chaturvedi

Sarcasm detection is important for several NLP tasks such as sentiment identification in product reviews, user feedback, and online forums. It is a challenging task requiring a deep understanding of language, context, and world knowledge. In this paper, we investigate whether incorporating commonsense knowledge helps in sarcasm detection. For this, we incorporate commonsense knowledge into the prediction process using a graph convolution network with pre-trained language model embeddings as input. Our experiments with three sarcasm detection datasets indicate that the approach does not outperform the baseline model. We perform an exhaustive set of experiments to analyze where commonsense support adds value and where it hurts classification. Our implementation is publicly available at: https://github.com/brcsomnath/commonsense-sarcasm.

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BERT Cannot Align Characters
Antonis Maronikolakis | Philipp Dufter | Hinrich Schütze

In previous work, it has been shown that BERT can adequately align cross-lingual sentences on the word level. Here we investigate whether BERT can also operate as a char-level aligner. The languages examined are English, Fake English, German and Greek. We show that the closer two languages are, the better BERT can align them on the character level. BERT indeed works well in English to Fake English alignment, but this does not generalize to natural languages to the same extent. Nevertheless, the proximity of two languages does seem to be a factor. English is more related to German than to Greek and this is reflected in how well BERT aligns them; English to German is better than English to Greek. We examine multiple setups and show that the similarity matrices for natural languages show weaker relations the further apart two languages are.

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Two Heads are Better than One? Verification of Ensemble Effect in Neural Machine Translation
Chanjun Park | Sungjin Park | Seolhwa Lee | Taesun Whang | Heuiseok Lim

In the field of natural language processing, ensembles are broadly known to be effective in improving performance. This paper analyzes how ensemble of neural machine translation (NMT) models affect performance improvement by designing various experimental setups (i.e., intra-, inter-ensemble, and non-convergence ensemble). To an in-depth examination, we analyze each ensemble method with respect to several aspects such as different attention models and vocab strategies. Experimental results show that ensembling is not always resulting in performance increases and give noteworthy negative findings.

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Finetuning Pretrained Transformers into Variational Autoencoders
Seongmin Park | Jihwa Lee

Text variational autoencoders (VAEs) are notorious for posterior collapse, a phenomenon where the model’s decoder learns to ignore signals from the encoder. Because posterior collapse is known to be exacerbated by expressive decoders, Transformers have seen limited adoption as components of text VAEs. Existing studies that incorporate Transformers into text VAEs (Li et al., 2020; Fang et al., 2021) mitigate posterior collapse using massive pretraining, a technique unavailable to most of the research community without extensive computing resources. We present a simple two-phase training scheme to convert a sequence-to-sequence Transformer into a VAE with just finetuning. The resulting language model is competitive with massively pretrained Transformer-based VAEs in some internal metrics while falling short on others. To facilitate training we comprehensively explore the impact of common posterior collapse alleviation techniques in the literature. We release our code for reproducability.

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Are BERTs Sensitive to Native Interference in L2 Production?
Zixin Tang | Prasenjit Mitra | David Reitter

With the essays part from The International Corpus Network of Asian Learners of English (ICNALE) and the TOEFL11 corpus, we fine-tuned neural language models based on BERT to predict English learners’ native languages. Results showed neural models can learn to represent and detect such native language impacts, but multilingually trained models have no advantage in doing so.

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Zero-Shot Cross-Lingual Transfer is a Hard Baseline to Beat in German Fine-Grained Entity Typing
Sabine Weber | Mark Steedman

The training of NLP models often requires large amounts of labelled training data, which makes it difficult to expand existing models to new languages. While zero-shot cross-lingual transfer relies on multilingual word embeddings to apply a model trained on one language to another, Yarowski and Ngai (2001) propose the method of annotation projection to generate training data without manual annotation. This method was successfully used for the tasks of named entity recognition and coarse-grained entity typing, but we show that it is outperformed by zero-shot cross-lingual transfer when applied to the similar task of fine-grained entity typing. In our study of fine-grained entity typing with the FIGER type ontology for German, we show that annotation projection amplifies the English model’s tendency to underpredict level 2 labels and is beaten by zero-shot cross-lingual transfer on three novel test sets.

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Comparing Euclidean and Hyperbolic Embeddings on the WordNet Nouns Hypernymy Graph
Sameer Bansal | Adrian Benton

Nickel and Kiela (2017) present a new method for embedding tree nodes in the Poincare ball, and suggest that these hyperbolic embeddings are far more effective than Euclidean embeddings at embedding nodes in large, hierarchically structured graphs like the WordNet nouns hypernymy tree. This is especially true in low dimensions (Nickel and Kiela, 2017, Table 1). In this work, we seek to reproduce their experiments on embedding and reconstructing the WordNet nouns hypernymy graph. Counter to what they report, we find that Euclidean embeddings are able to represent this tree at least as well as Poincare embeddings, when allowed at least 50 dimensions. We note that this does not diminish the significance of their work given the impressive performance of hyperbolic embeddings in very low-dimensional settings. However, given the wide influence of their work, our aim here is to present an updated and more accurate comparison between the Euclidean and hyperbolic embeddings.

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When does Further Pre-training MLM Help? An Empirical Study on Task-Oriented Dialog Pre-training
Qi Zhu | Yuxian Gu | Lingxiao Luo | Bing Li | Cheng Li | Wei Peng | Minlie Huang | Xiaoyan Zhu

Further pre-training language models on in-domain data (domain-adaptive pre-training, DAPT) or task-relevant data (task-adaptive pre-training, TAPT) before fine-tuning has been shown to improve downstream tasks’ performances. However, in task-oriented dialog modeling, we observe that further pre-training MLM does not always boost the performance on a downstream task. We find that DAPT is beneficial in the low-resource setting, but as the fine-tuning data size grows, DAPT becomes less beneficial or even useless, and scaling the size of DAPT data does not help. Through Representational Similarity Analysis, we conclude that more data for fine-tuning yields greater change of the model’s representations and thus reduces the influence of initialization.

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Recurrent Attention for the Transformer
Jan Rosendahl | Christian Herold | Frithjof Petrick | Hermann Ney

In this work, we conduct a comprehensive investigation on one of the centerpieces of modern machine translation systems: the encoder-decoder attention mechanism. Motivated by the concept of first-order alignments, we extend the (cross-)attention mechanism by a recurrent connection, allowing direct access to previous attention/alignment decisions. We propose several ways to include such a recurrency into the attention mechanism. Verifying their performance across different translation tasks we conclude that these extensions and dependencies are not beneficial for the translation performance of the Transformer architecture.

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On the Difficulty of Segmenting Words with Attention
Ramon Sanabria | Hao Tang | Sharon Goldwater

Word segmentation, the problem of finding word boundaries in speech, is of interest for a range of tasks. Previous papers have suggested that for sequence-to-sequence models trained on tasks such as speech translation or speech recognition, attention can be used to locate and segment the words. We show, however, that even on monolingual data this approach is brittle. In our experiments with different input types, data sizes, and segmentation algorithms, only models trained to predict phones from words succeed in the task. Models trained to predict words from either phones or speech (i.e., the opposite direction needed to generalize to new data), yield much worse results, suggesting that attention-based segmentation is only useful in limited scenarios.

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The Highs and Lows of Simple Lexical Domain Adaptation Approaches for Neural Machine Translation
Nikolay Bogoychev | Pinzhen Chen

Machine translation systems are vulnerable to domain mismatch, especially in a low-resource scenario. Out-of-domain translations are often of poor quality and prone to hallucinations, due to exposure bias and the decoder acting as a language model. We adopt two approaches to alleviate this problem: lexical shortlisting restricted by IBM statistical alignments, and hypothesis reranking based on similarity. The methods are computationally cheap and show success on low-resource out-of-domain test sets. However, the methods lose advantage when there is sufficient data or too great domain mismatch. This is due to both the IBM model losing its advantage over the implicitly learned neural alignment, and issues with subword segmentation of unseen words.

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Backtranslation in Neural Morphological Inflection
Ling Liu | Mans Hulden

Backtranslation is a common technique for leveraging unlabeled data in low-resource scenarios in machine translation. The method is directly applicable to morphological inflection generation if unlabeled word forms are available. This paper evaluates the potential of backtranslation for morphological inflection using data from six languages with labeled data drawn from the SIGMORPHON shared task resource and unlabeled data from different sources. Our core finding is that backtranslation can offer modest improvements in low-resource scenarios, but only if the unlabeled data is very clean and has been filtered by the same annotation standards as the labeled data.

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Learning Data Augmentation Schedules for Natural Language Processing
Daphné Chopard | Matthias S. Treder | Irena Spasić

Despite its proven efficiency in other fields, data augmentation is less popular in the context of natural language processing (NLP) due to its complexity and limited results. A recent study (Longpre et al., 2020) showed for example that task-agnostic data augmentations fail to consistently boost the performance of pretrained transformers even in low data regimes. In this paper, we investigate whether data-driven augmentation scheduling and the integration of a wider set of transformations can lead to improved performance where fixed and limited policies were unsuccessful. Our results suggest that, while this approach can help the training process in some settings, the improvements are unsubstantial. This negative result is meant to help researchers better understand the limitations of data augmentation for NLP.

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An Investigation into the Contribution of Locally Aggregated Descriptors to Figurative Language Identification
Sina Mahdipour Saravani | Ritwik Banerjee | Indrakshi Ray

In natural language understanding, topics that touch upon figurative language and pragmatics are notably difficult. We probe a novel use of locally aggregated descriptors – specifically, an architecture called NeXtVLAD – motivated by its accomplishments in computer vision, achieve tremendous success in the FigLang2020 sarcasm detection task. The reported F1 score of 93.1% is 14% higher than the next best result. We specifically investigate the extent to which the novel architecture is responsible for this boost, and find that it does not provide statistically significant benefits. Deep learning approaches are expensive, and we hope our insights highlighting the lack of benefits from introducing a resource-intensive component will aid future research to distill the effective elements from long and complex pipelines, thereby providing a boost to the wider research community.

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Blindness to Modality Helps Entailment Graph Mining
Liane Guillou | Sander Bijl de Vroe | Mark Johnson | Mark Steedman

Understanding linguistic modality is widely seen as important for downstream tasks such as Question Answering and Knowledge Graph Population. Entailment Graph learning might also be expected to benefit from attention to modality. We build Entailment Graphs using a news corpus filtered with a modality parser, and show that stripping modal modifiers from predicates in fact increases performance. This suggests that for some tasks, the pragmatics of modal modification of predicates allows them to contribute as evidence of entailment.

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Investigating the Effect of Natural Language Explanations on Out-of-Distribution Generalization in Few-shot NLI
Yangqiaoyu Zhou | Chenhao Tan

Although neural models have shown strong performance in datasets such as SNLI, they lack the ability to generalize out-of-distribution (OOD). In this work, we formulate a few-shot learning setup and examine the effects of natural language explanations on OOD generalization. We leverage the templates in the HANS dataset and construct templated natural language explanations for each template. Although generated explanations show competitive BLEU scores against ground truth explanations, they fail to improve prediction performance. We further show that generated explanations often hallucinate information and miss key elements that indicate the label.

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Generalization in NLI: Ways (Not) To Go Beyond Simple Heuristics
Prajjwal Bhargava | Aleksandr Drozd | Anna Rogers

Much of recent progress in NLU was shown to be due to models’ learning dataset-specific heuristics. We conduct a case study of generalization in NLI (from MNLI to the adversarially constructed HANS dataset) in a range of BERT-based architectures (adapters, Siamese Transformers, HEX debiasing), as well as with subsampling the data and increasing the model size. We report 2 successful and 3 unsuccessful strategies, all providing insights into how Transformer-based models learn to generalize.

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Challenging the Semi-Supervised VAE Framework for Text Classification
Ghazi Felhi | Joseph Le Roux | Djamé Seddah

Semi-Supervised Variational Autoencoders (SSVAEs) are widely used models for data efficient learning. In this paper, we question the adequacy of the standard design of sequence SSVAEs for the task of text classification as we exhibit two sources of overcomplexity for which we provide simplifications. These simplifications to SSVAEs preserve their theoretical soundness while providing a number of practical advantages in the semi-supervised setup where the result of training is a text classifier. These simplifications are the removal of (i) the Kullback-Liebler divergence from its objective and (ii) the fully unobserved latent variable from its probabilistic model. These changes relieve users from choosing a prior for their latent variables, make the model smaller and faster, and allow for a better flow of information into the latent variables. We compare the simplified versions to standard SSVAEs on 4 text classification tasks. On top of the above-mentioned simplification, experiments show a speed-up of 26%, while keeping equivalent classification scores. The code to reproduce our experiments is public.

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Active Learning for Argument Strength Estimation
Nataliia Kees | Michael Fromm | Evgeniy Faerman | Thomas Seidl

High-quality arguments are an essential part of decision-making. Automatically predicting the quality of an argument is a complex task that recently got much attention in argument mining. However, the annotation effort for this task is exceptionally high. Therefore, we test uncertainty-based active learning (AL) methods on two popular argument-strength data sets to estimate whether sample-efficient learning can be enabled. Our extensive empirical evaluation shows that uncertainty-based acquisition functions can not surpass the accuracy reached with the random acquisition on these data sets.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the First Workshop on Interactive Learning for Natural Language Processing

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Proceedings of the First Workshop on Interactive Learning for Natural Language Processing
Kianté Brantley | Soham Dan | Iryna Gurevych | Ji-Ung Lee | Filip Radlinski | Hinrich Schütze | Edwin Simpson | Lili Yu

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HILDIF: Interactive Debugging of NLI Models Using Influence Functions
Hugo Zylberajch | Piyawat Lertvittayakumjorn | Francesca Toni

Biases and artifacts in training data can cause unwelcome behavior in text classifiers (such as shallow pattern matching), leading to lack of generalizability. One solution to this problem is to include users in the loop and leverage their feedback to improve models. We propose a novel explanatory debugging pipeline called HILDIF, enabling humans to improve deep text classifiers using influence functions as an explanation method. We experiment on the Natural Language Inference (NLI) task, showing that HILDIF can effectively alleviate artifact problems in fine-tuned BERT models and result in increased model generalizability.

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Apple Core-dination: Linguistic Feedback and Learning in a Speech-to-Action Shared World Game
Susann Boy | AriaRay Brown | Morgan Wixted

We investigate the question of how adaptive feedback from a virtual agent impacts the linguistic input of the user in a shared world game environment. To do so, we carry out an exploratory pilot study to observe how individualized linguistic feedback affects the user’s speech input. We introduce a speech-controlled game, Apple Core-dination, in which an agent learns complex tasks using a base knowledge of simple actions. The agent is equipped with a learning mechanism for mapping new commands to sequences of simple actions, as well as the ability to incorporate user input into written responses. The agent repeatedly shares its internal knowledge state by responding to what it knows and does not know about language meaning and the shared environment. Our paper focuses on the linguistic feedback loop in order to analyze the nature of user input. Feedback from the agent is provided in the form of visual movement and written linguistic responses. Particular attention is given to incorporating user input into agent responses and updating the speech-to-action mappings based on commands provided by the user. Through our pilot study, we analyze task success and compare the lexical features of user input. Results show variation in input length and lexical variety across users, suggesting a correlation between the two that can be studied further.

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SHAPELURN: An Interactive Language Learning Game with Logical Inference
Katharina Stein | Leonie Harter | Luisa Geiger

We investigate if a model can learn natural language with minimal linguistic input through interaction. Addressing this question, we design and implement an interactive language learning game that learns logical semantic representations compositionally. Our game allows us to explore the benefits of logical inference for natural language learning. Evaluation shows that the model can accurately narrow down potential logical representations for words over the course of the game, suggesting that our model is able to learn lexical mappings from scratch successfully.

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A Proposal: Interactively Learning to Summarise Timelines by Reinforcement Learning
Yuxuan Ye | Edwin Simpson

Timeline Summarisation (TLS) aims to generate a concise, time-ordered list of events described in sources such as news articles. However, current systems do not provide an adequate way to adapt to new domains nor to focus on the aspects of interest to a particular user. Therefore, we propose a method for interactively learning abstractive TLS using Reinforcement Learning (RL). We define a compound reward function and use RL to fine-tune an abstractive Multi-document Summarisation (MDS) model, which avoids the need to train using reference summaries. One of the sub-reward functions will be learned interactively from user feedback to ensure the consistency between users’ demands and the generated timeline. The other sub-reward functions contribute to topical coherence and linguistic fluency. We plan experiments to evaluate whether our approach could generate accurate and precise timelines tailored for each user.

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Dynamic Facet Selection by Maximizing Graded Relevance
Michael Glass | Md Faisal Mahbub Chowdhury | Yu Deng | Ruchi Mahindru | Nicolas Rodolfo Fauceglia | Alfio Gliozzo | Nandana Mihindukulasooriya

Dynamic faceted search (DFS), an interactive query refinement technique, is a form of Human–computer information retrieval (HCIR) approach. It allows users to narrow down search results through facets, where the facets-documents mapping is determined at runtime based on the context of user query instead of pre-indexing the facets statically. In this paper, we propose a new unsupervised approach for dynamic facet generation, namely optimistic facets, which attempts to generate the best possible subset of facets, hence maximizing expected Discounted Cumulative Gain (DCG), a measure of ranking quality that uses a graded relevance scale. We also release code to generate a new evaluation dataset. Through empirical results on two datasets, we show that the proposed DFS approach considerably improves the document ranking in the search results.

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Active Curriculum Learning
Borna Jafarpour | Dawn Sepehr | Nick Pogrebnyakov

This paper investigates and reveals the relationship between two closely related machine learning disciplines, namely Active Learning (AL) and Curriculum Learning (CL), from the lens of several novel curricula. This paper also introduces Active Curriculum Learning (ACL) which improves AL by combining AL with CL to benefit from the dynamic nature of the AL informativeness concept as well as the human insights used in the design of the curriculum heuristics. Comparison of the performance of ACL and AL on two public datasets for the Named Entity Recognition (NER) task shows the effectiveness of combining AL and CL using our proposed framework.

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Tackling Fake News Detection by Interactively Learning Representations using Graph Neural Networks
Nikhil Mehta | Dan Goldwasser

Easy access, variety of content, and fast widespread interactions are some of the reasons that have made social media increasingly popular in today’s society. However, this has also enabled the widespread propagation of fake news, text that is published with an intent to spread misinformation and sway beliefs. Detecting fake news is important to prevent misinformation and maintain a healthy society. While prior works have tackled this problem by building supervised learning systems, automatedly modeling the social media landscape that enables the spread of fake news is challenging. On the contrary, having humans fact check all news is not scalable. Thus, in this paper, we propose to approach this problem interactively, where human insight can be continually combined with an automated system, enabling better social media representation quality. Our experiments show performance improvements in this setting.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Parsing Technologies and the IWPT 2021 Shared Task on Parsing into Enhanced Universal Dependencies (IWPT 2021)

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Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Parsing Technologies and the IWPT 2021 Shared Task on Parsing into Enhanced Universal Dependencies (IWPT 2021)
Stephan Oepen | Kenji Sagae | Reut Tsarfaty | Gosse Bouma | Djamé Seddah | Daniel Zeman

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Generic Oracles for Structured Prediction
Christoph Teichmann | Antoine Venant

When learned without exploration, local models for structured prediction tasks are subject to exposure bias and cannot be trained without detailed guidance. Active Imitation Learning (AIL), also known in NLP as Dynamic Oracle Learning, is a general technique for working around these issues by allowing the exploration of different outputs at training time. AIL requires oracle feedback: an oracle is any algorithm which can, given a partial candidate solution and gold annotation, find the correct (minimum loss) next output to produce. This paper describes a general finite state technique for deriving oracles. The technique describe is also efficient and will greatly expand the tasks for which AIL can be used.

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Proof Net Structure for Neural Lambek Categorial Parsing
Aditya Bhargava | Gerald Penn

In this paper, we present the first statistical parser for Lambek categorial grammar (LCG), a grammatical formalism for which the graphical proof method known as *proof nets* is applicable. Our parser incorporates proof net structure and constraints into a system based on self-attention networks via novel model elements. Our experiments on an English LCG corpus show that incorporating term graph structure is helpful to the model, improving both parsing accuracy and coverage. Moreover, we derive novel loss functions by expressing proof net constraints as differentiable functions of our model output, enabling us to train our parser without ground-truth derivations.

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The Reading Machine: A Versatile Framework for Studying Incremental Parsing Strategies
Franck Dary | Alexis Nasr

The Reading Machine, is a parsing framework that takes as input raw text and performs six standard nlp tasks: tokenization, pos tagging, morphological analysis, lemmatization, dependency parsing and sentence segmentation. It is built upon Transition Based Parsing, and allows to implement a large number of parsing configurations, among which a fully incremental one. Three case studies are presented to highlight the versatility of the framework. The first one explores whether an incremental parser is able to take into account top-down dependencies (i.e. the influence of high level decisions on low level ones), the second compares the performances of an incremental and a pipe-line architecture and the third quantifies the impact of the right context on the predictions made by an incremental parser.

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Semi-Automatic Construction of Text-to-SQL Data for Domain Transfer
Tianyi Li | Sujian Li | Mark Steedman

Strong and affordable in-domain data is a desirable asset when transferring trained semantic parsers to novel domains. As previous methods for semi-automatically constructing such data cannot handle the complexity of realistic SQL queries, we propose to construct SQL queries via context-dependent sampling, and introduce the concept of topic. Along with our SQL query construction method, we propose a novel pipeline of semi-automatic Text-to-SQL dataset construction that covers the broad space of SQL queries. We show that the created dataset is comparable with expert annotation along multiple dimensions, and is capable of improving domain transfer performance for SOTA semantic parsers.

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Levi Graph AMR Parser using Heterogeneous Attention
Han He | Jinho D. Choi

Coupled with biaffine decoders, transformers have been effectively adapted to text-to-graph transduction and achieved state-of-the-art performance on AMR parsing. Many prior works, however, rely on the biaffine decoder for either or both arc and label predictions although most features used by the decoder may be learned by the transformer already. This paper presents a novel approach to AMR parsing by combining heterogeneous data (tokens, concepts, labels) as one input to a transformer to learn attention, and use only attention matrices from the transformer to predict all elements in AMR graphs (concepts, arcs, labels). Although our models use significantly fewer parameters than the previous state-of-the-art graph parser, they show similar or better accuracy on AMR 2.0 and 3.0.

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Translate, then Parse! A Strong Baseline for Cross-Lingual AMR Parsing
Sarah Uhrig | Yoalli Garcia | Juri Opitz | Anette Frank

In cross-lingual Abstract Meaning Representation (AMR) parsing, researchers develop models that project sentences from various languages onto their AMRs to capture their essential semantic structures: given a sentence in any language, we aim to capture its core semantic content through concepts connected by manifold types of semantic relations. Methods typically leverage large silver training data to learn a single model that is able to project non-English sentences to AMRs. However, we find that a simple baseline tends to be overlooked: translating the sentences to English and projecting their AMR with a monolingual AMR parser (translate+parse,T+P). In this paper, we revisit this simple two-step base-line, and enhance it with a strong NMT system and a strong AMR parser. Our experiments show that T+P outperforms a recent state-of-the-art system across all tested languages: German, Italian, Spanish and Mandarin with +14.6, +12.6, +14.3 and +16.0 Smatch points

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Great Service! Fine-grained Parsing of Implicit Arguments
Ruixiang Cui | Daniel Hershcovich

Broad-coverage meaning representations in NLP mostly focus on explicitly expressed content. More importantly, the scarcity of datasets annotating diverse implicit roles limits empirical studies into their linguistic nuances. For example, in the web review “Great service!”, the provider and consumer are implicit arguments of different types. We examine an annotated corpus of fine-grained implicit arguments (Cui and Hershcovich, 2020) by carefully re-annotating it, resolving several inconsistencies. Subsequently, we present the first transition-based neural parser that can handle implicit arguments dynamically, and experiment with two different transition systems on the improved dataset. We find that certain types of implicit arguments are more difficult to parse than others and that the simpler system is more accurate in recovering implicit arguments, despite having a lower overall parsing score, attesting current reasoning limitations of NLP models. This work will facilitate a better understanding of implicit and underspecified language, by incorporating it holistically into meaning representations.

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A Falta de Pan, Buenas Son Tortas: The Efficacy of Predicted UPOS Tags for Low Resource UD Parsing
Mark Anderson | Mathieu Dehouck | Carlos Gómez-Rodríguez

We evaluate the efficacy of predicted UPOS tags as input features for dependency parsers in lower resource settings to evaluate how treebank size affects the impact tagging accuracy has on parsing performance. We do this for real low resource universal dependency treebanks, artificially low resource data with varying treebank sizes, and for very small treebanks with varying amounts of augmented data. We find that predicted UPOS tags are somewhat helpful for low resource treebanks, especially when fewer fully-annotated trees are available. We also find that this positive impact diminishes as the amount of data increases.

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Multilingual Dependency Parsing for Low-Resource African Languages: Case Studies on Bambara, Wolof, and Yoruba
Cheikh M. Bamba Dione

This paper describes a methodology for syntactic knowledge transfer between high-resource languages to extremely low-resource languages. The methodology consists in leveraging multilingual BERT self-attention model pretrained on large datasets to develop a multilingual multi-task model that can predict Universal Dependencies annotations for three African low-resource languages. The UD annotations include universal part-of-speech, morphological features, lemmas, and dependency trees. In our experiments, we used multilingual word embeddings and a total of 11 Universal Dependencies treebanks drawn from three high-resource languages (English, French, Norwegian) and three low-resource languages (Bambara, Wolof and Yoruba). We developed various models to test specific language combinations involving contemporary contact languages or genetically related languages. The results of the experiments show that multilingual models that involve high-resource languages and low-resource languages with contemporary contact between each other can provide better results than combinations that only include unrelated languages. As far genetic relationships are concerned, we could not draw any conclusion regarding the impact of language combinations involving the selected low-resource languages, namely Wolof and Yoruba.

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Bidirectional Domain Adaptation Using Weighted Multi-Task Learning
Daniel Dakota | Zeeshan Ali Sayyed | Sandra Kübler

Domain adaption in syntactic parsing is still a significant challenge. We address the issue of data imbalance between the in-domain and out-of-domain treebank typically used for the problem. We define domain adaptation as a Multi-task learning (MTL) problem, which allows us to train two parsers, one for each do-main. Our results show that the MTL approach is beneficial for the smaller treebank. For the larger treebank, we need to use loss weighting in order to avoid a decrease in performance be-low the single task. In order to determine towhat degree the data imbalance between two domains and the domain differences affect results, we also carry out an experiment with two imbalanced in-domain treebanks and show that loss weighting also improves performance in an in-domain setting. Given loss weighting in MTL, we can improve results for both parsers.

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Strength in Numbers: Averaging and Clustering Effects in Mixture of Experts for Graph-Based Dependency Parsing
Xudong Zhang | Joseph Le Roux | Thierry Charnois

We review two features of mixture of experts (MoE) models which we call averaging and clustering effects in the context of graph-based dependency parsers learned in a supervised probabilistic framework. Averaging corresponds to the ensemble combination of parsers and is responsible for variance reduction which helps stabilizing and improving parsing accuracy. Clustering describes the capacity of MoE models to give more credit to experts believed to be more accurate given an input. Although promising, this is difficult to achieve, especially without additional data. We design an experimental set-up to study the impact of these effects. Whereas averaging is always beneficial, clustering requires good initialization and stabilization techniques, but its advantages over mere averaging seem to eventually vanish when enough experts are present. As a by product, we show how this leads to state-of-the-art results on the PTB and the CoNLL09 Chinese treebank, with low variance across experiments.

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A Modest Pareto Optimisation Analysis of Dependency Parsers in 2021
Mark Anderson | Carlos Gómez-Rodríguez

We evaluate three leading dependency parser systems from different paradigms on a small yet diverse subset of languages in terms of their accuracy-efficiency Pareto front. As we are interested in efficiency, we evaluate core parsers without pretrained language models (as these are typically huge networks and would constitute most of the compute time) or other augmentations that can be transversally applied to any of them. Biaffine parsing emerges as a well-balanced default choice, with sequence-labelling parsing being preferable if inference speed (but not training energy cost) is the priority.

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Applying Occam’s Razor to Transformer-Based Dependency Parsing: What Works, What Doesn’t, and What is Really Necessary
Stefan Grünewald | Annemarie Friedrich | Jonas Kuhn

The introduction of pre-trained transformer-based contextualized word embeddings has led to considerable improvements in the accuracy of graph-based parsers for frameworks such as Universal Dependencies (UD). However, previous works differ in various dimensions, including their choice of pre-trained language models and whether they use LSTM layers. With the aims of disentangling the effects of these choices and identifying a simple yet widely applicable architecture, we introduce STEPS, a new modular graph-based dependency parser. Using STEPS, we perform a series of analyses on the UD corpora of a diverse set of languages. We find that the choice of pre-trained embeddings has by far the greatest impact on parser performance and identify XLM-R as a robust choice across the languages in our study. Adding LSTM layers provides no benefits when using transformer-based embeddings. A multi-task training setup outputting additional UD features may contort results. Taking these insights together, we propose a simple but widely applicable parser architecture and configuration, achieving new state-of-the-art results (in terms of LAS) for 10 out of 12 diverse languages.

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Incorporating Compositionality and Morphology into End-to-End Models
Emily Pitler

Many neural end-to-end systems today do not rely on syntactic parse trees, as much of the information that parse trees provide is encoded in the parameters of pretrained models. Lessons learned from parsing technologies and from taking a multilingual perspective, however, are still relevant even for end-to-end models. This talk will describe work that relies on compositionality in semantic parsing and in reading comprehension requiring numerical reasoning. We’ll then describe a new dataset that requires advances in multilingual modeling, and some approaches designed to better model morphology than off-the-shelf subword models that make some progress on these challenges.

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From Raw Text to Enhanced Universal Dependencies: The Parsing Shared Task at IWPT 2021
Gosse Bouma | Djamé Seddah | Daniel Zeman

We describe the second IWPT task on end-to-end parsing from raw text to Enhanced Universal Dependencies. We provide details about the evaluation metrics and the datasets used for training and evaluation. We compare the approaches taken by participating teams and discuss the results of the shared task, also in comparison with the first edition of this task.

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COMBO: A New Module for EUD Parsing
Mateusz Klimaszewski | Alina Wróblewska

We introduce the COMBO-based approach for EUD parsing and its implementation, which took part in the IWPT 2021 EUD shared task. The goal of this task is to parse raw texts in 17 languages into Enhanced Universal Dependencies (EUD). The proposed approach uses COMBO to predict UD trees and EUD graphs. These structures are then merged into the final EUD graphs. Some EUD edge labels are extended with case information using a single language-independent expansion rule. In the official evaluation, the solution ranked fourth, achieving an average ELAS of 83.79%. The source code is available at https://gitlab.clarin-pl.eu/syntactic-tools/combo.

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Splitting EUD Graphs into Trees: A Quick and Clatty Approach
Mark Anderson | Carlos Gómez-Rodríguez

We present the system submission from the FASTPARSE team for the EUD Shared Task at IWPT 2021. We engaged in the task last year by focusing on efficiency. This year we have focused on experimenting with new ideas on a limited time budget. Our system is based on splitting the EUD graph into several trees, based on linguistic criteria. We predict these trees using a sequence-labelling parser and combine them into an EUD graph. The results were relatively poor, although not a total disaster and could probably be improved with some polishing of the system’s rough edges.

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Graph Rewriting for Enhanced Universal Dependencies
Bruno Guillaume | Guy Perrier

This paper describes a system proposed for the IWPT 2021 Shared Task on Parsing into Enhanced Universal Dependencies (EUD). We propose a Graph Rewriting based system for computing Enhanced Universal Dependencies, given the Basic Universal Dependencies (UD).

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Biaffine Dependency and Semantic Graph Parsing for EnhancedUniversal Dependencies
Giuseppe Attardi | Daniele Sartiano | Maria Simi

This paper presents the system used in our submission to the IWPT 2021 Shared Task. This year the official evaluation metrics was ELAS, therefore dependency parsing might have been avoided as well as other pipeline stages like POS tagging and lemmatization. We nevertheless chose to deploy a combination of a dependency parser and a graph parser. The dependency parser is a biaffine parser, that uses transformers for representing input sentences, with no other feature. The graph parser is a semantic parser that exploits a similar architecture except for using a sigmoid crossentropy loss function to return multiple values for the predicted arcs. The final output is obtained by merging the output of the two parsers. The dependency parser achieves top or close to top LAS performance with respect to other systems that report results on such metrics, except on low resource languages (Tamil, Estonian, Latvian).

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Enhanced Universal Dependency Parsing with Automated Concatenation of Embeddings
Xinyu Wang | Zixia Jia | Yong Jiang | Kewei Tu

This paper describe the system used in our submission to the IWPT 2021 Shared Task. Our system is a graph-based parser with the technique of Automated Concatenation of Embeddings (ACE). Because recent work found that better word representations can be obtained by concatenating different types of embeddings, we use ACE to automatically find the better concatenation of embeddings for the task of enhanced universal dependencies. According to official results averaged on 17 languages, our system rank 2nd over 9 teams.

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RobertNLP at the IWPT 2021 Shared Task: Simple Enhanced UD Parsing for 17 Languages
Stefan Grünewald | Frederik Tobias Oertel | Annemarie Friedrich

This paper presents our multilingual dependency parsing system as used in the IWPT 2021 Shared Task on Parsing into Enhanced Universal Dependencies. Our system consists of an unfactorized biaffine classifier that operates directly on fine-tuned XLM-R embeddings and generates enhanced UD graphs by predicting the best dependency label (or absence of a dependency) for each pair of tokens. To avoid sparsity issues resulting from lexicalized dependency labels, we replace lexical items in relations with placeholders at training and prediction time, later retrieving them from the parse via a hybrid rule-based/machine-learning system. In addition, we utilize model ensembling at prediction time. Our system achieves high parsing accuracy on the blind test data, ranking 3rd out of 9 with an average ELAS F1 score of 86.97.

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The DCU-EPFL Enhanced Dependency Parser at the IWPT 2021 Shared Task
James Barry | Alireza Mohammadshahi | Joachim Wagner | Jennifer Foster | James Henderson

We describe the DCU-EPFL submission to the IWPT 2021 Parsing Shared Task: From Raw Text to Enhanced Universal Dependencies. The task involves parsing Enhanced UD graphs, which are an extension of the basic dependency trees designed to be more facilitative towards representing semantic structure. Evaluation is carried out on 29 treebanks in 17 languages and participants are required to parse the data from each language starting from raw strings. Our approach uses the Stanza pipeline to preprocess the text files, XLM-RoBERTa to obtain contextualized token representations, and an edge-scoring and labeling model to predict the enhanced graph. Finally, we run a postprocessing script to ensure all of our outputs are valid Enhanced UD graphs. Our system places 6th out of 9 participants with a coarse Enhanced Labeled Attachment Score (ELAS) of 83.57. We carry out additional post-deadline experiments which include using Trankit for pre-processing, XLM-RoBERTa LARGE, treebank concatenation, and multitask learning between a basic and an enhanced dependency parser. All of these modifications improve our initial score and our final system has a coarse ELAS of 88.04.

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TGIF: Tree-Graph Integrated-Format Parser for Enhanced UD with Two-Stage Generic- to Individual-Language Finetuning
Tianze Shi | Lillian Lee

We present our contribution to the IWPT 2021 shared task on parsing into enhanced Universal Dependencies. Our main system component is a hybrid tree-graph parser that integrates (a) predictions of spanning trees for the enhanced graphs with (b) additional graph edges not present in the spanning trees. We also adopt a finetuning strategy where we first train a language-generic parser on the concatenation of data from all available languages, and then, in a second step, finetune on each individual language separately. Additionally, we develop our own complete set of pre-processing modules relevant to the shared task, including tokenization, sentence segmentation, and multiword token expansion, based on pre-trained XLM-R models and our own pre-training of character-level language models. Our submission reaches a macro-average ELAS of 89.24 on the test set. It ranks top among all teams, with a margin of more than 2 absolute ELAS over the next best-performing submission, and best score on 16 out of 17 languages.

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End-to-end mBERT based Seq2seq Enhanced Dependency Parser with Linguistic Typology knowledge
Chinmay Choudhary | Colm O’riordan

We describe the NUIG solution for IWPT 2021 Shared Task of Enhanced Dependency (ED) parsing in multiple languages. For this shared task, we propose and evaluate an End-to-end Seq2seq mBERT-based ED parser which predicts the ED-parse tree of a given input sentence as a relative head-position tag-sequence. Our proposed model is a multitasking neural-network which performs five key tasks simultaneously namely UPOS tagging, UFeat tagging, Lemmatization, Dependency-parsing and ED-parsing. Furthermore we utilise the linguistic typology available in the WALS database to improve the ability of our proposed end-to-end parser to transfer across languages. Results show that our proposed Seq2seq ED-parser performs on par with state-of-the-art ED-parser despite having a much simpler de- sign.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Spoken Language Translation (IWSLT 2021)

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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Spoken Language Translation (IWSLT 2021)
Marcello Federico | Alex Waibel | Marta R. Costa-jussà | Jan Niehues | Sebastian Stuker | Elizabeth Salesky

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FINDINGS OF THE IWSLT 2021 EVALUATION CAMPAIGN
Antonios Anastasopoulos | Ondřej Bojar | Jacob Bremerman | Roldano Cattoni | Maha Elbayad | Marcello Federico | Xutai Ma | Satoshi Nakamura | Matteo Negri | Jan Niehues | Juan Pino | Elizabeth Salesky | Sebastian Stüker | Katsuhito Sudoh | Marco Turchi | Alexander Waibel | Changhan Wang | Matthew Wiesner

The evaluation campaign of the International Conference on Spoken Language Translation (IWSLT 2021) featured this year four shared tasks: (i) Simultaneous speech translation, (ii) Offline speech translation, (iii) Multilingual speech translation, (iv) Low-resource speech translation. A total of 22 teams participated in at least one of the tasks. This paper describes each shared task, data and evaluation metrics, and reports results of the received submissions.

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The USTC-NELSLIP Systems for Simultaneous Speech Translation Task at IWSLT 2021
Dan Liu | Mengge Du | Xiaoxi Li | Yuchen Hu | Lirong Dai

This paper describes USTC-NELSLIP’s submissions to the IWSLT2021 Simultaneous Speech Translation task. We proposed a novel simultaneous translation model, Cross-Attention Augmented Transducer (CAAT), which extends conventional RNN-T to sequence-to-sequence tasks without monotonic constraints, e.g., simultaneous translation. Experiments on speech-to-text (S2T) and text-to-text (T2T) simultaneous translation tasks shows CAAT achieves better quality-latency trade-offs compared to wait-k, one of the previous state-of-the-art approaches. Based on CAAT architecture and data augmentation, we build S2T and T2T simultaneous translation systems in this evaluation campaign. Compared to last year’s optimal systems, our S2T simultaneous translation system improves by an average of 11.3 BLEU for all latency regimes, and our T2T simultaneous translation system improves by an average of 4.6 BLEU.

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NAIST English-to-Japanese Simultaneous Translation System for IWSLT 2021 Simultaneous Text-to-text Task
Ryo Fukuda | Yui Oka | Yasumasa Kano | Yuki Yano | Yuka Ko | Hirotaka Tokuyama | Kosuke Doi | Sakriani Sakti | Katsuhito Sudoh | Satoshi Nakamura

This paper describes NAIST’s system for the English-to-Japanese Simultaneous Text-to-text Translation Task in IWSLT 2021 Evaluation Campaign. Our primary submission is based on wait-k neural machine translation with sequence-level knowledge distillation to encourage literal translation.

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The University of Edinburgh’s Submission to the IWSLT21 Simultaneous Translation Task
Sukanta Sen | Ulrich Germann | Barry Haddow

We describe our submission to the IWSLT 2021 shared task on simultaneous text-to-text English-German translation. Our system is based on the re-translation approach where the agent re-translates the whole source prefix each time it receives a new source token. This approach has the advantage of being able to use a standard neural machine translation (NMT) inference engine with beam search, however, there is a risk that incompatibility between successive re-translations will degrade the output. To improve the quality of the translations, we experiment with various approaches: we use a fixed size wait at the beginning of the sentence, we use a language model score to detect translatable units, and we apply dynamic masking to determine when the translation is unstable. We find that a combination of dynamic masking and language model score obtains the best latency-quality trade-off.

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Without Further Ado: Direct and Simultaneous Speech Translation by AppTek in 2021
Parnia Bahar | Patrick Wilken | Mattia A. Di Gangi | Evgeny Matusov

This paper describes the offline and simultaneous speech translation systems developed at AppTek for IWSLT 2021. Our offline ST submission includes the direct end-to-end system and the so-called posterior tight integrated model, which is akin to the cascade system but is trained in an end-to-end fashion, where all the cascaded modules are end-to-end models themselves. For simultaneous ST, we combine hybrid automatic speech recognition with a machine translation approach whose translation policy decisions are learned from statistical word alignments. Compared to last year, we improve general quality and provide a wider range of quality/latency trade-offs, both due to a data augmentation method making the MT model robust to varying chunk sizes. Finally, we present a method for ASR output segmentation into sentences that introduces a minimal additional delay.

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The Volctrans Neural Speech Translation System for IWSLT 2021
Chengqi Zhao | Zhicheng Liu | Jian Tong | Tao Wang | Mingxuan Wang | Rong Ye | Qianqian Dong | Jun Cao | Lei Li

This paper describes the systems submitted to IWSLT 2021 by the Volctrans team. We participate in the offline speech translation and text-to-text simultaneous translation tracks. For offline speech translation, our best end-to-end model achieves 7.9 BLEU improvements over the benchmark on the MuST-C test set and is even approaching the results of a strong cascade solution. For text-to-text simultaneous translation, we explore the best practice to optimize the wait-k model. As a result, our final submitted systems exceed the benchmark at around 7 BLEU on the same latency regime. We release our code and model to facilitate both future research works and industrial applications.

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THE IWSLT 2021 BUT SPEECH TRANSLATION SYSTEMS
hari Krishna Vydana | Martin Karafiat | Lukas Burget | Jan Černocký

The paper describes BUT’s English to German offline speech translation (ST) systems developed for IWSLT2021. They are based on jointly trained Automatic Speech Recognition-Machine Translation models. Their performances is evaluated on MustC-Common test set. In this work, we study their efficiency from the perspective of having a large amount of separate ASR training data and MT training data, and a smaller amount of speech-translation training data. Large amounts of ASR and MT training data are utilized for pre-training the ASR and MT models. Speech-translation data is used to jointly optimize ASR-MT models by defining an end-to-end differentiable path from speech to translations. For this purpose, we use the internal continuous representations from the ASR-decoder as the input to MT module. We show that speech translation can be further improved by training the ASR-decoder jointly with the MT-module using large amount of text-only MT training data. We also show significant improvements by training an ASR module capable of generating punctuated text, rather than leaving the punctuation task to the MT module.

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Dealing with training and test segmentation mismatch: FBK@IWSLT2021
Sara Papi | Marco Gaido | Matteo Negri | Marco Turchi

This paper describes FBK’s system submission to the IWSLT 2021 Offline Speech Translation task. We participated with a direct model, which is a Transformer-based architecture trained to translate English speech audio data into German texts. The training pipeline is characterized by knowledge distillation and a two-step fine-tuning procedure. Both knowledge distillation and the first fine-tuning step are carried out on manually segmented real and synthetic data, the latter being generated with an MT system trained on the available corpora. Differently, the second fine-tuning step is carried out on a random segmentation of the MuST-C v2 En-De dataset. Its main goal is to reduce the performance drops occurring when a speech translation model trained on manually segmented data (i.e. an ideal, sentence-like segmentation) is evaluated on automatically segmented audio (i.e. actual, more realistic testing conditions). For the same purpose, a custom hybrid segmentation procedure that accounts for both audio content (pauses) and for the length of the produced segments is applied to the test data before passing them to the system. At inference time, we compared this procedure with a baseline segmentation method based on Voice Activity Detection (VAD). Our results indicate the effectiveness of the proposed hybrid approach, shown by a reduction of the gap with manual segmentation from 8.3 to 1.4 BLEU points.

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The NiuTrans End-to-End Speech Translation System for IWSLT 2021 Offline Task
Chen Xu | Xiaoqian Liu | Xiaowen Liu | Tiger Wang | Canan Huang | Tong Xiao | Jingbo Zhu

This paper describes the submission of the NiuTrans end-to-end speech translation system for the IWSLT 2021 offline task, which translates from the English audio to German text directly without intermediate transcription. We use the Transformer-based model architecture and enhance it by Conformer, relative position encoding, and stacked acoustic and textual encoding. To augment the training data, the English transcriptions are translated to German translations. Finally, we employ ensemble decoding to integrate the predictions from several models trained with the different datasets. Combining these techniques, we achieve 33.84 BLEU points on the MuST-C En-De test set, which shows the enormous potential of the end-to-end model.

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ESPnet-ST IWSLT 2021 Offline Speech Translation System
Hirofumi Inaguma | Brian Yan | Siddharth Dalmia | Pengcheng Guo | Jiatong Shi | Kevin Duh | Shinji Watanabe

This paper describes the ESPnet-ST group’s IWSLT 2021 submission in the offline speech translation track. This year we made various efforts on training data, architecture, and audio segmentation. On the data side, we investigated sequence-level knowledge distillation (SeqKD) for end-to-end (E2E) speech translation. Specifically, we used multi-referenced SeqKD from multiple teachers trained on different amounts of bitext. On the architecture side, we adopted the Conformer encoder and the Multi-Decoder architecture, which equips dedicated decoders for speech recognition and translation tasks in a unified encoder-decoder model and enables search in both source and target language spaces during inference. We also significantly improved audio segmentation by using the pyannote.audio toolkit and merging multiple short segments for long context modeling. Experimental evaluations showed that each of them contributed to large improvements in translation performance. Our best E2E system combined all the above techniques with model ensembling and achieved 31.4 BLEU on the 2-ref of tst2021 and 21.2 BLEU and 19.3 BLEU on the two single references of tst2021.

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End-to-End Speech Translation with Pre-trained Models and Adapters: UPC at IWSLT 2021
Gerard I. Gállego | Ioannis Tsiamas | Carlos Escolano | José A. R. Fonollosa | Marta R. Costa-jussà

This paper describes the submission to the IWSLT 2021 offline speech translation task by the UPC Machine Translation group. The task consists of building a system capable of translating English audio recordings extracted from TED talks into German text. Submitted systems can be either cascade or end-to-end and use a custom or given segmentation. Our submission is an end-to-end speech translation system, which combines pre-trained models (Wav2Vec 2.0 and mBART) with coupling modules between the encoder and decoder, and uses an efficient fine-tuning technique, which trains only 20% of its total parameters. We show that adding an Adapter to the system and pre-training it, can increase the convergence speed and the final result, with which we achieve a BLEU score of 27.3 on the MuST-C test set. Our final model is an ensemble that obtains 28.22 BLEU score on the same set. Our submission also uses a custom segmentation algorithm that employs pre-trained Wav2Vec 2.0 for identifying periods of untranscribable text and can bring improvements of 2.5 to 3 BLEU score on the IWSLT 2019 test set, as compared to the result with the given segmentation.

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VUS at IWSLT 2021: A Finetuned Pipeline for Offline Speech Translation
Yong Rae Jo | Youngki Moon | Minji Jung | Jungyoon Choi | Jihyung Moon | Won Ik Cho

In this technical report, we describe the fine-tuned ASR-MT pipeline used for the IWSLT shared task. We remove less useful speech samples by checking WER with an ASR model, and further train a wav2vec and Transformers-based ASR module based on the filtered data. In addition, we cleanse the errata that can interfere with the machine translation process and use it for Transformer-based MT module training. Finally, in the actual inference phase, we use a sentence boundary detection model trained with constrained data to properly merge fragment ASR outputs into full sentences. The merged sentences are post-processed using part of speech. The final result is yielded by the trained MT module. The performance using the dev set displays BLEU 20.37, and this model records the performance of BLEU 20.9 with the test set.

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KIT’s IWSLT 2021 Offline Speech Translation System
Tuan Nam Nguyen | Thai Son Nguyen | Christian Huber | Ngoc-Quan Pham | Thanh-Le Ha | Felix Schneider | Sebastian Stüker

This paper describes KIT’submission to the IWSLT 2021 Offline Speech Translation Task. We describe a system in both cascaded condition and end-to-end condition. In the cascaded condition, we investigated different end-to-end architectures for the speech recognition module. For the text segmentation module, we trained a small transformer-based model on high-quality monolingual data. For the translation module, our last year’s neural machine translation model was reused. In the end-to-end condition, we improved our Speech Relative Transformer architecture to reach or even surpass the result of the cascade system.

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FST: the FAIR Speech Translation System for the IWSLT21 Multilingual Shared Task
Yun Tang | Hongyu Gong | Xian Li | Changhan Wang | Juan Pino | Holger Schwenk | Naman Goyal

In this paper, we describe our end-to-end multilingual speech translation system submitted to the IWSLT 2021 evaluation campaign on the Multilingual Speech Translation shared task. Our system is built by leveraging transfer learning across modalities, tasks and languages. First, we leverage general-purpose multilingual modules pretrained with large amounts of unlabelled and labelled data. We further enable knowledge transfer from the text task to the speech task by training two tasks jointly. Finally, our multilingual model is finetuned on speech translation task-specific data to achieve the best translation results. Experimental results show our system outperforms the reported systems, including both end-to-end and cascaded based approaches, by a large margin. In some translation directions, our speech translation results evaluated on the public Multilingual TEDx test set are even comparable with the ones from a strong text-to-text translation system, which uses the oracle speech transcripts as input.

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Maastricht University’s Multilingual Speech Translation System for IWSLT 2021
Danni Liu | Jan Niehues

This paper describes Maastricht University’s participation in the IWSLT 2021 multilingual speech translation track. The task in this track is to build multilingual speech translation systems in supervised and zero-shot directions. Our primary system is an end-to-end model that performs both speech transcription and translation. We observe that the joint training for the two tasks is complementary especially when the speech translation data is scarce. On the source and target side, we use data augmentation and pseudo-labels respectively to improve the performance of our systems. We also introduce an ensembling technique that consistently improves the quality of transcriptions and translations. The experiments show that the end-to-end system is competitive with its cascaded counterpart especially in zero-shot conditions.

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ZJU’s IWSLT 2021 Speech Translation System
Linlin Zhang

In this paper, we describe Zhejiang University’s submission to the IWSLT2021 Multilingual Speech Translation Task. This task focuses on speech translation (ST) research across many non-English source languages. Participants can decide whether to work on constrained systems or unconstrained systems which can using external data. We create both cascaded and end-to-end speech translation constrained systems, using the provided data only. In the cascaded approach, we combine Conformer-based automatic speech recognition (ASR) with the Transformer-based neural machine translation (NMT). Our end-to-end direct speech translation systems use ASR pretrained encoder and multi-task decoders. The submitted systems are ensembled by different cascaded models.

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Multilingual Speech Translation with Unified Transformer: Huawei Noah’s Ark Lab at IWSLT 2021
Xingshan Zeng | Liangyou Li | Qun Liu

This paper describes the system submitted to the IWSLT 2021 Multilingual Speech Translation (MultiST) task from Huawei Noah’s Ark Lab. We use a unified transformer architecture for our MultiST model, so that the data from different modalities (i.e., speech and text) and different tasks (i.e., Speech Recognition, Machine Translation, and Speech Translation) can be exploited to enhance the model’s ability. Specifically, speech and text inputs are firstly fed to different feature extractors to extract acoustic and textual features, respectively. Then, these features are processed by a shared encoder–decoder architecture. We apply several training techniques to improve the performance, including multi-task learning, task-level curriculum learning, data augmentation, etc. Our final system achieves significantly better results than bilingual baselines on supervised language pairs and yields reasonable results on zero-shot language pairs.

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Multilingual Speech Translation KIT @ IWSLT2021
Ngoc-Quan Pham | Tuan Nam Nguyen | Thanh-Le Ha | Sebastian Stüker | Alexander Waibel | Dan He

This paper contains the description for the submission of Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) for the multilingual TEDx translation task in the IWSLT 2021 evaluation campaign. Our main approach is to develop both cascade and end-to-end systems and eventually combine them together to achieve the best possible results for this extremely low-resource setting. The report also confirms certain consistent architectural improvement added to the Transformer architecture, for all tasks: translation, transcription and speech translation.

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Edinburgh’s End-to-End Multilingual Speech Translation System for IWSLT 2021
Biao Zhang | Rico Sennrich

This paper describes Edinburgh’s submissions to the IWSLT2021 multilingual speech translation (ST) task. We aim at improving multilingual translation and zero-shot performance in the constrained setting (without using any extra training data) through methods that encourage transfer learning and larger capacity modeling with advanced neural components. We build our end-to-end multilingual ST model based on Transformer, integrating techniques including adaptive speech feature selection, language-specific modeling, multi-task learning, deep and big Transformer, sparsified linear attention and root mean square layer normalization. We adopt data augmentation using machine translation models for ST which converts the zero-shot problem into a zero-resource one. Experimental results show that these methods deliver substantial improvements, surpassing the official baseline by > 15 average BLEU and outperforming our cascading system by > 2 average BLEU. Our final submission achieves competitive performance (runner up).

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ON-TRAC’ systems for the IWSLT 2021 low-resource speech translation and multilingual speech translation shared tasks
Hang Le | Florentin Barbier | Ha Nguyen | Natalia Tomashenko | Salima Mdhaffar | Souhir Gabiche Gahbiche | Benjamin Lecouteux | Didier Schwab | Yannick Estève

This paper describes the ON-TRAC Consortium translation systems developed for two challenge tracks featured in the Evaluation Campaign of IWSLT 2021, low-resource speech translation and multilingual speech translation. The ON-TRAC Consortium is composed of researchers from three French academic laboratories and an industrial partner: LIA (Avignon Université), LIG (Université Grenoble Alpes), LIUM (Le Mans Université), and researchers from Airbus. A pipeline approach was explored for the low-resource speech translation task, using a hybrid HMM/TDNN automatic speech recognition system fed by wav2vec features, coupled to an NMT system. For the multilingual speech translation task, we investigated the us of a dual-decoder Transformer that jointly transcribes and translates an input speech. This model was trained in order to translate from multiple source languages to multiple target ones.

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IMS’ Systems for the IWSLT 2021 Low-Resource Speech Translation Task
Pavel Denisov | Manuel Mager | Ngoc Thang Vu

This paper describes the submission to the IWSLT 2021 Low-Resource Speech Translation Shared Task by IMS team. We utilize state-of-the-art models combined with several data augmentation, multi-task and transfer learning approaches for the automatic speech recognition (ASR) and machine translation (MT) steps of our cascaded system. Moreover, we also explore the feasibility of a full end-to-end speech translation (ST) model in the case of very constrained amount of ground truth labeled data. Our best system achieves the best performance among all submitted systems for Congolese Swahili to English and French with BLEU scores 7.7 and 13.7 respectively, and the second best result for Coastal Swahili to English with BLEU score 14.9.

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The USYD-JD Speech Translation System for IWSLT2021
Liang Ding | Dacheng Tao

This paper describes the University of Sydney & JD’s joint submission of the IWSLT 2021 low resource speech translation task. We participated in the Swahili->English direction and got the best scareBLEU (25.3) score among all the participants. Our constrained system is based on a pipeline framework, i.e. ASR and NMT. We trained our models with the officially provided ASR and MT datasets. The ASR system is based on the open-sourced tool Kaldi and this work mainly explores how to make the most of the NMT models. To reduce the punctuation errors generated by the ASR model, we employ our previous work SlotRefine to train a punctuation correction model. To achieve better translation performance, we explored the most recent effective strategies, including back translation, knowledge distillation, multi-feature reranking, and transductive finetuning. For model structure, we tried auto-regressive and non-autoregressive models, respectively. In addition, we proposed two novel pre-train approaches, i.e. de-noising training and bidirectional training to fully exploit the data. Extensive experiments show that adding the above techniques consistently improves the BLEU scores, and the final submission system outperforms the baseline (Transformer ensemble model trained with the original parallel data) by approximately 10.8 BLEU score, achieving the SOTA performance.

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mixSeq: A Simple Data Augmentation Methodfor Neural Machine Translation
Xueqing Wu | Yingce Xia | Jinhua Zhu | Lijun Wu | Shufang Xie | Yang Fan | Tao Qin

Data augmentation, which refers to manipulating the inputs (e.g., adding random noise,masking specific parts) to enlarge the dataset,has been widely adopted in machine learning. Most data augmentation techniques operate on a single input, which limits the diversity of the training corpus. In this paper, we propose a simple yet effective data augmentation technique for neural machine translation, mixSeq, which operates on multiple inputs and their corresponding targets. Specifically, we randomly select two input sequences,concatenate them together as a longer input aswell as their corresponding target sequencesas an enlarged target, and train models on theaugmented dataset. Experiments on nine machine translation tasks demonstrate that such asimple method boosts the baselines by a non-trivial margin. Our method can be further combined with single input based data augmentation methods to obtain further improvements.

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On Knowledge Distillation for Translating Erroneous Speech Transcriptions
Ryo Fukuda | Katsuhito Sudoh | Satoshi Nakamura

Recent studies argue that knowledge distillation is promising for speech translation (ST) using end-to-end models. In this work, we investigate the effect of knowledge distillation with a cascade ST using automatic speech recognition (ASR) and machine translation (MT) models. We distill knowledge from a teacher model based on human transcripts to a student model based on erroneous transcriptions. Our experimental results demonstrated that knowledge distillation is beneficial for a cascade ST. Further investigation that combined knowledge distillation and fine-tuning revealed that the combination consistently improved two language pairs: English-Italian and Spanish-English.

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Self-Guided Curriculum Learning for Neural Machine Translation
Lei Zhou | Liang Ding | Kevin Duh | Shinji Watanabe | Ryohei Sasano | Koichi Takeda

In supervised learning, a well-trained model should be able to recover ground truth accurately, i.e. the predicted labels are expected to resemble the ground truth labels as much as possible. Inspired by this, we formulate a difficulty criterion based on the recovery degrees of training examples. Motivated by the intuition that after skimming through the training corpus, the neural machine translation (NMT) model “knows” how to schedule a suitable curriculum according to learning difficulty, we propose a self-guided curriculum learning strategy that encourages the NMT model to learn from easy to hard on the basis of recovery degrees. Specifically, we adopt sentence-level BLEU score as the proxy of recovery degree. Experimental results on translation benchmarks including WMT14 English-German and WMT17 Chinese-English demonstrate that our proposed method considerably improves the recovery degree, thus consistently improving the translation performance.

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Between Flexibility and Consistency: Joint Generation of Captions and Subtitles
Alina Karakanta | Marco Gaido | Matteo Negri | Marco Turchi

Speech translation (ST) has lately received growing interest for the generation of subtitles without the need for an intermediate source language transcription and timing (i.e. captions). However, the joint generation of source captions and target subtitles does not only bring potential output quality advantages when the two decoding processes inform each other, but it is also often required in multilingual scenarios. In this work, we focus on ST models which generate consistent captions-subtitles in terms of structure and lexical content. We further introduce new metrics for evaluating subtitling consistency. Our findings show that joint decoding leads to increased performance and consistency between the generated captions and subtitles while still allowing for sufficient flexibility to produce subtitles conforming to language-specific needs and norms.

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Large-Scale English-Japanese Simultaneous Interpretation Corpus: Construction and Analyses with Sentence-Aligned Data
Kosuke Doi | Katsuhito Sudoh | Satoshi Nakamura

This paper describes the construction of a new large-scale English-Japanese Simultaneous Interpretation (SI) corpus and presents the results of its analysis. A portion of the corpus contains SI data from three interpreters with different amounts of experience. Some of the SI data were manually aligned with the source speeches at the sentence level. Their latency, quality, and word order aspects were compared among the SI data themselves as well as against offline translations. The results showed that (1) interpreters with more experience controlled the latency and quality better, and (2) large latency hurt the SI quality.

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Inverted Projection for Robust Speech Translation
Dirk Padfield | Colin Cherry

Traditional translation systems trained on written documents perform well for text-based translation but not as well for speech-based applications. We aim to adapt translation models to speech by introducing actual lexical errors from ASR and segmentation errors from automatic punctuation into our translation training data. We introduce an inverted projection approach that projects automatically detected system segments onto human transcripts and then re-segments the gold translations to align with the projected human transcripts. We demonstrate that this overcomes the train-test mismatch present in other training approaches. The new projection approach achieves gains of over 1 BLEU point over a baseline that is exposed to the human transcripts and segmentations, and these gains hold for both IWSLT data and YouTube data.

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Towards the evaluation of automatic simultaneous speech translation from a communicative perspective
Claudio Fantinuoli | Bianca Prandi

In recent years, automatic speech-to-speech and speech-to-text translation has gained momentum thanks to advances in artificial intelligence, especially in the domains of speech recognition and machine translation. The quality of such applications is commonly tested with automatic metrics, such as BLEU, primarily with the goal of assessing improvements of releases or in the context of evaluation campaigns. However, little is known about how the output of such systems is perceived by end users or how they compare to human performances in similar communicative tasks. In this paper, we present the results of an experiment aimed at evaluating the quality of a real-time speech translation engine by comparing it to the performance of professional simultaneous interpreters. To do so, we adopt a framework developed for the assessment of human interpreters and use it to perform a manual evaluation on both human and machine performances. In our sample, we found better performance for the human interpreters in terms of intelligibility, while the machine performs slightly better in terms of informativeness. The limitations of the study and the possible enhancements of the chosen framework are discussed. Despite its intrinsic limitations, the use of this framework represents a first step towards a user-centric and communication-oriented methodology for evaluating real-time automatic speech translation.

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Tag Assisted Neural Machine Translation of Film Subtitles
Aren Siekmeier | WonKee Lee | Hongseok Kwon | Jong-Hyeok Lee

We implemented a neural machine translation system that uses automatic sequence tagging to improve the quality of translation. Instead of operating on unannotated sentence pairs, our system uses pre-trained tagging systems to add linguistic features to source and target sentences. Our proposed neural architecture learns a combined embedding of tokens and tags in the encoder, and simultaneous token and tag prediction in the decoder. Compared to a baseline with unannotated training, this architecture increased the BLEU score of German to English film subtitle translation outputs by 1.61 points using named entity tags; however, the BLEU score decreased by 0.38 points using part-of-speech tags. This demonstrates that certain token-level tag outputs from off-the-shelf tagging systems can improve the output of neural translation systems using our combined embedding and simultaneous decoding extensions.

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A Statistical Extension of Byte-Pair Encoding
David Vilar | Marcello Federico

Sub-word segmentation is currently a standard tool for training neural machine translation (MT) systems and other NLP tasks. The goal is to split words (both in the source and target languages) into smaller units which then constitute the input and output vocabularies of the MT system. The aim of reducing the size of the input and output vocabularies is to increase the generalization capabilities of the translation model, enabling the system to translate and generate infrequent and new (unseen) words at inference time by combining previously seen sub-word units. Ideally, we would expect the created units to have some linguistic meaning, so that words are created in a compositional way. However, the most popular word-splitting method, Byte-Pair Encoding (BPE), which originates from the data compression literature, does not include explicit criteria to favor linguistic splittings nor to find the optimal sub-word granularity for the given training data. In this paper, we propose a statistically motivated extension of the BPE algorithm and an effective convergence criterion that avoids the costly experimentation cycle needed to select the best sub-word vocabulary size. Experimental results with morphologically rich languages show that our model achieves nearly-optimal BLEU scores and produces morphologically better word segmentations, which allows to outperform BPE’s generalization in the translation of sentences containing new words, as shown via human evaluation.

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Integrated Training for Sequence-to-Sequence Models Using Non-Autoregressive Transformer
Evgeniia Tokarchuk | Jan Rosendahl | Weiyue Wang | Pavel Petrushkov | Tomer Lancewicki | Shahram Khadivi | Hermann Ney

Complex natural language applications such as speech translation or pivot translation traditionally rely on cascaded models. However,cascaded models are known to be prone to error propagation and model discrepancy problems. Furthermore, there is no possibility of using end-to-end training data in conventional cascaded systems, meaning that the training data most suited for the task cannot be used. Previous studies suggested several approaches for integrated end-to-end training to overcome those problems, however they mostly rely on(synthetic or natural) three-way data. We propose a cascaded model based on the non-autoregressive Transformer that enables end-to-end training without the need for an explicit intermediate representation. This new architecture (i) avoids unnecessary early decisions that can cause errors which are then propagated throughout the cascaded models and (ii) utilizes the end-to-end training data directly. We conduct an evaluation on two pivot-based machine translation tasks, namely French→German and German→Czech. Our experimental results show that the proposed architecture yields an improvement of more than 2 BLEU for French→German over the cascaded baseline.

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Data Augmentation by Concatenation for Low-Resource Translation: A Mystery and a Solution
Toan Q. Nguyen | Kenton Murray | David Chiang

In this paper, we investigate the driving factors behind concatenation, a simple but effective data augmentation method for low-resource neural machine translation. Our experiments suggest that discourse context is unlikely the cause for concatenation improving BLEU by about +1 across four language pairs. Instead, we demonstrate that the improvement comes from three other factors unrelated to discourse: context diversity, length diversity, and (to a lesser extent) position shifting.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Beyond Vision and LANguage: inTEgrating Real-world kNowledge (LANTERN)

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Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Beyond Vision and LANguage: inTEgrating Real-world kNowledge (LANTERN)
Marius Mosbach | Michael A. Hedderich | Sandro Pezzelle | Aditya Mogadala | Dietrich Klakow | Marie-Francine Moens | Zeynep Akata

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Reasoning over Vision and Language: Exploring the Benefits of Supplemental Knowledge
Violetta Shevchenko | Damien Teney | Anthony Dick | Anton van den Hengel

The limits of applicability of vision-and language models are defined by the coverage of their training data. Tasks like vision question answering (VQA) often require commonsense and factual information beyond what can be learned from task-specific datasets. This paper investigates the injection of knowledge from general-purpose knowledge bases (KBs) into vision-and-language transformers. We use an auxiliary training objective that encourages the learned representations to align with graph embeddings of matching entities in a KB. We empirically study the relevance of various KBs to multiple tasks and benchmarks. The technique brings clear benefits to knowledge-demanding question answering tasks (OK-VQA, FVQA) by capturing semantic and relational knowledge absent from existing models. More surprisingly, the technique also benefits visual reasoning tasks (NLVR2, SNLI-VE). We perform probing experiments and show that the injection of additional knowledge regularizes the space of embeddings, which improves the representation of lexical and semantic similarities. The technique is model-agnostic and can expand the applicability of any vision-and-language transformer with minimal computational overhead.

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Visual Grounding Strategies for Text-Only Natural Language Processing
Damien Sileo

Visual grounding is a promising path toward more robust and accurate Natural Language Processing (NLP) models. Many multimodal extensions of BERT (e.g., VideoBERT, LXMERT, VL-BERT) allow a joint modeling of texts and images that lead to state-of-the-art results on multimodal tasks such as Visual Question Answering. Here, we leverage multimodal modeling for purely textual tasks (language modeling and classification) with the expectation that the multimodal pretraining provides a grounding that can improve text processing accuracy. We propose possible strategies in this respect. A first type of strategy, referred to as transferred grounding consists in applying multimodal models to text-only tasks using a placeholder to replace image input. The second one, which we call associative grounding, harnesses image retrieval to match texts with related images during both pretraining and text-only downstream tasks. We draw further distinctions into both strategies and then compare them according to their impact on language modeling and commonsense-related downstream tasks, showing improvement over text-only baselines.

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Exploiting Image–Text Synergy for Contextual Image Captioning
Sreyasi Nag Chowdhury | Rajarshi Bhowmik | Hareesh Ravi | Gerard de Melo | Simon Razniewski | Gerhard Weikum

Modern web content - news articles, blog posts, educational resources, marketing brochures - is predominantly multimodal. A notable trait is the inclusion of media such as images placed at meaningful locations within a textual narrative. Most often, such images are accompanied by captions - either factual or stylistic (humorous, metaphorical, etc.) - making the narrative more engaging to the reader. While standalone image captioning has been extensively studied, captioning an image based on external knowledge such as its surrounding text remains under-explored. In this paper, we study this new task: given an image and an associated unstructured knowledge snippet, the goal is to generate a contextual caption for the image.

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Large-Scale Zero-Shot Image Classification from Rich and Diverse Textual Descriptions
Sebastian Bujwid | Josephine Sullivan

We study the impact of using rich and diverse textual descriptions of classes for zero-shot learning (ZSL) on ImageNet. We create a new dataset ImageNet-Wiki that matches each ImageNet class to its corresponding Wikipedia article. We show that merely employing these Wikipedia articles as class descriptions yields much higher ZSL performance than prior works. Even a simple model using this type of auxiliary data outperforms state-of-the-art models that rely on standard features of word embedding encodings of class names. These results highlight the usefulness and importance of textual descriptions for ZSL, as well as the relative importance of auxiliary data type compared to the algorithmic progress. Our experimental results also show that standard zero-shot learning approaches generalize poorly across categories of classes.

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What Did This Castle Look like before? Exploring Referential Relations in Naturally Occurring Multimodal Texts
Ronja Utescher | Sina Zarrieß

Multi-modal texts are abundant and diverse in structure, yet Language & Vision research of these naturally occurring texts has mostly focused on genres that are comparatively light on text, like tweets. In this paper, we discuss the challenges and potential benefits of a L&V framework that explicitly models referential relations, taking Wikipedia articles about buildings as an example. We briefly survey existing related tasks in L&V and propose multi-modal information extraction as a general direction for future research.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 5th Joint SIGHUM Workshop on Computational Linguistics for Cultural Heritage, Social Sciences, Humanities and Literature

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Proceedings of the 5th Joint SIGHUM Workshop on Computational Linguistics for Cultural Heritage, Social Sciences, Humanities and Literature
Stefania Degaetano-Ortlieb | Anna Kazantseva | Nils Reiter | Stan Szpakowicz

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The Early Modern Dutch Mediascape. Detecting Media Mentions in Chronicles Using Word Embeddings and CRF
Alie Lassche | Roser Morante

While the production of information in the European early modern period is a well-researched topic, the question how people were engaging with the information explosion that occurred in early modern Europe, is still underexposed. This paper presents the annotations and experiments aimed at exploring whether we can automatically extract media related information (source, perception, and receiver) from a corpus of early modern Dutch chronicles in order to get insight in the mediascape of early modern middle class people from a historic perspective. In a number of classification experiments with Conditional Random Fields, three categories of features are tested: (i) raw and binary word embedding features, (ii) lexicon features, and (iii) character features. Overall, the classifier that uses raw embeddings performs slightly better. However, given that the best F-scores are around 0.60, we conclude that the machine learning approach needs to be combined with a close reading approach for the results to be useful to answer history research questions.

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FrameNet-like Annotation of Olfactory Information in Texts
Sara Tonelli | Stefano Menini

Although olfactory references play a crucial role in our cultural memory, only few works in NLP have tried to capture them from a computational perspective. Currently, the main challenge is not much the development of technological components for olfactory information extraction, given recent advances in semantic processing and natural language understanding, but rather the lack of a theoretical framework to capture this information from a linguistic point of view, as a preliminary step towards the development of automated systems. Therefore, in this work we present the annotation guidelines, developed with the help of history scholars and domain experts, aimed at capturing all the relevant elements involved in olfactory situations or events described in texts. These guidelines have been inspired by FrameNet annotation, but underwent some adaptations, which are detailed in this paper. Furthermore, we present a case study concerning the annotation of olfactory situations in English historical travel writings describing trips to Italy. An analysis of the most frequent role fillers show that olfactory descriptions pertain to some typical domains such as religion, food, nature, ancient past, poor sanitation, all supporting the creation of a stereotypical imagery related to Italy. On the other hand, positive feelings triggered by smells are prevalent, and contribute to framing travels to Italy as an exciting experience involving all senses.

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Batavia asked for advice. Pretrained language models for Named Entity Recognition in historical texts.
Sophie I. Arnoult | Lodewijk Petram | Piek Vossen

Pretrained language models like BERT have advanced the state of the art for many NLP tasks. For resource-rich languages, one has the choice between a number of language-specific models, while multilingual models are also worth considering. These models are well known for their crosslingual performance, but have also shown competitive in-language performance on some tasks. We consider monolingual and multilingual models from the perspective of historical texts, and in particular for texts enriched with editorial notes: how do language models deal with the historical and editorial content in these texts? We present a new Named Entity Recognition dataset for Dutch based on 17th and 18th century United East India Company (VOC) reports extended with modern editorial notes. Our experiments with multilingual and Dutch pretrained language models confirm the crosslingual abilities of multilingual models while showing that all language models can leverage mixed-variant data. In particular, language models successfully incorporate notes for the prediction of entities in historical texts. We also find that multilingual models outperform monolingual models on our data, but that this superiority is linked to the task at hand: multilingual models lose their advantage when confronted with more semantical tasks.

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Quantifying Contextual Aspects of Inter-annotator Agreement in Intertextuality Research
Enrique Manjavacas Arevalo | Laurence Mellerin | Mike Kestemont

We report on an inter-annotator agreement experiment involving instances of text reuse focusing on the well-known case of biblical intertextuality in medieval literature. We target the application use case of literary scholars whose aim is to document instances of biblical references in the ‘apparatus fontium’ of a prospective digital edition. We develop a Bayesian implementation of Cohen’s kappa for multiple annotators that allows us to assess the influence of various contextual effects on the inter-annotator agreement, producing both more robust estimates of the agreement indices as well as insights into the annotation process that leads to the estimated indices. As a result, we are able to produce a novel and nuanced estimation of inter-annotator agreement in the context of intertextuality, exploring the challenges that arise from manually annotating a dataset of biblical references in the writings of Bernard of Clairvaux. Among others, our method was able to unveil the fact that the obtained agreement depends heavily on the biblical source book of the proposed reference, as well as the underlying algorithm used to retrieve the candidate match.

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The Multilingual Corpus of Survey Questionnaires Query Interface
Danielly Sorato | Diana Zavala-Rojas

The dawn of the digital age led to increasing demands for digital research resources, which shall be quickly processed and handled by computers. Due to the amount of data created by this digitization process, the design of tools that enable the analysis and management of data and metadata has become a relevant topic. In this context, the Multilingual Corpus of Survey Questionnaires (MCSQ) contributes to the creation and distribution of data for the Social Sciences and Humanities (SSH) following FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) principles, and provides functionalities for end-users that are not acquainted with programming through an easy-to-use interface. By simply applying the desired filters in the graphic interface, users can build linguistic resources for the survey research and translation areas, such as translation memories, thus facilitating data access and usage.

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The FairyNet Corpus - Character Networks for German Fairy Tales
David Schmidt | Albin Zehe | Janne Lorenzen | Lisa Sergel | Sebastian Düker | Markus Krug | Frank Puppe

This paper presents a data set of German fairy tales, manually annotated with character networks which were obtained with high inter rater agreement. The release of this corpus provides an opportunity of training and comparing different algorithms for the extraction of character networks, which so far was barely possible due to heterogeneous interests of previous researchers. We demonstrate the usefulness of our data set by providing baseline experiments for the automatic extraction of character networks, applying a rule-based pipeline as well as a neural approach, and find the neural approach outperforming the rule-approach in most evaluation settings.

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End-to-end style-conditioned poetry generation: What does it take to learn from examples alone?
Jörg Wöckener | Thomas Haider | Tristan Miller | The-Khang Nguyen | Thanh Tung Linh Nguyen | Minh Vu Pham | Jonas Belouadi | Steffen Eger

In this work, we design an end-to-end model for poetry generation based on conditioned recurrent neural network (RNN) language models whose goal is to learn stylistic features (poem length, sentiment, alliteration, and rhyming) from examples alone. We show this model successfully learns the ‘meaning’ of length and sentiment, as we can control it to generate longer or shorter as well as more positive or more negative poems. However, the model does not grasp sound phenomena like alliteration and rhyming, but instead exploits low-level statistical cues. Possible reasons include the size of the training data, the relatively low frequency and difficulty of these sublexical phenomena as well as model biases. We show that more recent GPT-2 models also have problems learning sublexical phenomena such as rhyming from examples alone.

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Emotion Classification in German Plays with Transformer-based Language Models Pretrained on Historical and Contemporary Language
Thomas Schmidt | Katrin Dennerlein | Christian Wolff

We present results of a project on emotion classification on historical German plays of Enlightenment, Storm and Stress, and German Classicism. We have developed a hierarchical annotation scheme consisting of 13 sub-emotions like suffering, love and joy that sum up to 6 main and 2 polarity classes (positive/negative). We have conducted textual annotations on 11 German plays and have acquired over 13,000 emotion annotations by two annotators per play. We have evaluated multiple traditional machine learning approaches as well as transformer-based models pretrained on historical and contemporary language for a single-label text sequence emotion classification for the different emotion categories. The evaluation is carried out on three different instances of the corpus: (1) taking all annotations, (2) filtering overlapping annotations by annotators, (3) applying a heuristic for speech-based analysis. Best results are achieved on the filtered corpus with the best models being large transformer-based models pretrained on contemporary German language. For the polarity classification accuracies of up to 90% are achieved. The accuracies become lower for settings with a higher number of classes, achieving 66% for 13 sub-emotions. Further pretraining of a historical model with a corpus of dramatic texts led to no improvements.

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Automating the Detection of Poetic Features: The Limerick as Model Organism
Almas Abdibayev | Yohei Igarashi | Allen Riddell | Daniel Rockmore

In this paper we take up the problem of “limerick detection” and describe a system to identify five-line poems as limericks or not. This turns out to be a surprisingly difficult challenge with many subtleties. More precisely, we produce an algorithm which focuses on the structural aspects of the limerick – rhyme scheme and rhythm (i.e., stress patterns) – and when tested on a a culled data set of 98,454 publicly available limericks, our “limerick filter” accepts 67% as limericks. The primary failure of our filter is on the detection of “non-standard” rhymes, which we highlight as an outstanding challenge in computational poetics. Our accent detection algorithm proves to be very robust. Our main contributions are (1) a novel rhyme detection algorithm that works on English words including rare proper nouns and made-up words (and thus, words not in the widely used CMUDict database); (2) a novel rhythm-identifying heuristic that is robust to language noise at moderate levels and comparable in accuracy to state-of-the-art scansion algorithms. As a third significant contribution (3) we make publicly available a large corpus of limericks that includes tags of “limerick” or “not-limerick” as determined by our identification software, thereby providing a benchmark for the community. The poetic tasks that we have identified as challenges for machines suggest that the limerick is a useful “model organism” for the study of machine capabilities in poetry and more broadly literature and language. We include a list of open challenges as well. Generally, we anticipate that this work will provide useful material and benchmarks for future explorations in the field.

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Unsupervised Adverbial Identification in Modern Chinese Literature
Wenxiu Xie | John Lee | Fangqiong Zhan | Xiao Han | Chi-Yin Chow

In many languages, adverbials can be derived from words of various parts-of-speech. In Chinese, the derivation may be marked either with the standard adverbial marker DI, or the non-standard marker DE. Since DE also serves double duty as the attributive marker, accurate identification of adverbials requires disambiguation of its syntactic role. As parsers are trained predominantly on texts using the standard adverbial marker DI, they often fail to recognize adverbials suffixed with the non-standard DE. This paper addresses this problem with an unsupervised, rule-based approach for adverbial identification that utilizes dependency tree patterns. Experiment results show that this approach outperforms a masked language model baseline. We apply this approach to analyze standard and non-standard adverbial marker usage in modern Chinese literature.

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Data-Driven Detection of General Chiasmi Using Lexical and Semantic Features
Felix Schneider | Björn Barz | Phillip Brandes | Sophie Marshall | Joachim Denzler

Automatic detection of stylistic devices is an important tool for literary studies, e.g., for stylometric analysis or argument mining. A particularly striking device is the rhetorical figure called chiasmus, which involves the inversion of semantically or syntactically related words. Existing works focus on a special case of chiasmi that involve identical words in an A B B A pattern, so-called antimetaboles. In contrast, we propose an approach targeting the more general and challenging case A B B’ A’, where the words A, A’ and B, B’ constituting the chiasmus do not need to be identical but just related in meaning. To this end, we generalize the established candidate phrase mining strategy from antimetaboles to general chiasmi and propose novel features based on word embeddings and lemmata for capturing both semantic and syntactic information. These features serve as input for a logistic regression classifier, which learns to distinguish between rhetorical chiasmi and coincidental chiastic word orders without special meaning. We evaluate our approach on two datasets consisting of classical German dramas, four texts with annotated chiasmi and 500 unannotated texts. Compared to previous methods for chiasmus detection, our novel features improve the average precision from 17% to 28% and the precision among the top 100 results from 13% to 35%.

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Translationese in Russian Literary Texts
Maria Kunilovskaya | Ekaterina Lapshinova-Koltunski | Ruslan Mitkov

The paper reports the results of a translationese study of literary texts based on translated and non-translated Russian. We aim to find out if translations deviate from non-translated literary texts, and if the established differences can be attributed to typological relations between source and target languages. We expect that literary translations from typologically distant languages should exhibit more translationese, and the fingerprints of individual source languages (and their families) are traceable in translations. We explore linguistic properties that distinguish non-translated Russian literature from translations into Russian. Our results show that non-translated fiction is different from translations to the degree that these two language varieties can be automatically classified. As expected, language typology is reflected in translations of literary texts. We identified features that point to linguistic specificity of Russian non-translated literature and to shining-through effects. Some of translationese features cut across all language pairs, while others are characteristic of literary translations from languages belonging to specific language families.

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BAHP: Benchmark of Assessing Word Embeddings in Historical Portuguese
Zuoyu Tian | Dylan Jarrett | Juan Escalona Torres | Patricia Amaral

High quality distributional models can capture lexical and semantic relations between words. Hence, researchers design various intrinsic tasks to test whether such relations are captured. However, most of the intrinsic tasks are designed for modern languages, and there is a lack of evaluation methods for distributional models of historical corpora. In this paper, we conducted BAHP: a benchmark of assessing word embeddings in Historical Portuguese, which contains four types of tests: analogy, similarity, outlier detection, and coherence. We examined word2vec models generated from two historical Portuguese corpora in these four test sets. The results demonstrate that our test sets are capable of measuring the quality of vector space models and can provide a holistic view of the model’s ability to capture syntactic and semantic information. Furthermore, the methodology for the creation of our test sets can be easily extended to other historical languages.

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The diffusion of scientific terms – tracing individuals’ influence in the history of science for English
Yuri Bizzoni | Stefania Degaetano-Ortlieb | Katrin Menzel | Elke Teich

Tracing the influence of individuals or groups in social networks is an increasingly popular task in sociolinguistic studies. While methods to determine someone’s influence in shortterm contexts (e.g., social media, on-line political debates) are widespread, influence in longterm contexts is less investigated and may be harder to capture. We study the diffusion of scientific terms in an English diachronic scientific corpus, applying Hawkes Processes to capture the role of individual scientists as “influencers” or “influencees” in the diffusion of new concepts. Our findings on two major scientific discoveries in chemistry and astronomy of the 18th century reveal that modelling both the introduction and diffusion of scientific terms in a historical corpus as Hawkes Processes allows detecting patterns of influence between authors on a long-term scale.

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A Pilot Study for BERT Language Modelling and Morphological Analysis for Ancient and Medieval Greek
Pranaydeep Singh | Gorik Rutten | Els Lefever

This paper presents a pilot study to automatic linguistic preprocessing of Ancient and Byzantine Greek, and morphological analysis more specifically. To this end, a novel subword-based BERT language model was trained on the basis of a varied corpus of Modern, Ancient and Post-classical Greek texts. Consequently, the obtained BERT embeddings were incorporated to train a fine-grained Part-of-Speech tagger for Ancient and Byzantine Greek. In addition, a corpus of Greek Epigrams was manually annotated and the resulting gold standard was used to evaluate the performance of the morphological analyser on Byzantine Greek. The experimental results show very good perplexity scores (4.9) for the BERT language model and state-of-the-art performance for the fine-grained Part-of-Speech tagger for in-domain data (treebanks containing a mixture of Classical and Medieval Greek), as well as for the newly created Byzantine Greek gold standard data set. The language models and associated code are made available for use at https://github.com/pranaydeeps/Ancient-Greek-BERT

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Zero-Shot Information Extraction to Enhance a Knowledge Graph Describing Silk Textiles
Thomas Schleider | Raphael Troncy

The knowledge of the European silk textile production is a typical case for which the information collected is heterogeneous, spread across many museums and sparse since rarely complete. Knowledge Graphs for this cultural heritage domain, when being developed with appropriate ontologies and vocabularies, enable to integrate and reconcile this diverse information. However, many of these original museum records still have some metadata gaps. In this paper, we present a zero-shot learning approach that leverages the ConceptNet common sense knowledge graph to predict categorical metadata informing about the silk objects production. We compared the performance of our approach with traditional supervised deep learning-based methods that do require training data. We demonstrate promising and competitive performance for similar datasets and circumstances and the ability to predict sometimes more fine-grained information. Our results can be reproduced using the code and datasets published at https://github.com/silknow/ZSL-KG-silk.

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‘Tecnologica cosa’: Modeling Storyteller Personalities in Boccaccio’s ‘Decameron’
A. Cooper | Maria Antoniak | Christopher De Sa | Marilyn Migiel | David Mimno

We explore Boccaccio’s Decameron to see how digital humanities tools can be used for tasks that have limited data in a language no longer in contemporary use: medieval Italian. We focus our analysis on the question: Do the different storytellers in the text exhibit distinct personalities? To answer this question, we curate and release a dataset based on the authoritative edition of the text. We use supervised classification methods to predict storytellers based on the stories they tell, confirming the difficulty of the task, and demonstrate that topic modeling can extract thematic storyteller “profiles.”

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WMDecompose: A Framework for Leveraging the Interpretable Properties of Word Mover’s Distance in Sociocultural Analysis
Mikael Brunila | Jack LaViolette

Despite the increasing popularity of NLP in the humanities and social sciences, advances in model performance and complexity have been accompanied by concerns about interpretability and explanatory power for sociocultural analysis. One popular model that takes a middle road is Word Mover’s Distance (WMD). Ostensibly adapted for its interpretability, WMD has nonetheless been used and further developed in ways which frequently discard its most interpretable aspect: namely, the word-level distances required for translating a set of words into another set of words. To address this apparent gap, we introduce WMDecompose: a model and Python library that 1) decomposes document-level distances into their constituent word-level distances, and 2) subsequently clusters words to induce thematic elements, such that useful lexical information is retained and summarized for analysis. To illustrate its potential in a social scientific context, we apply it to a longitudinal social media corpus to explore the interrelationship between conspiracy theories and conservative American discourses. Finally, because of the full WMD model’s high time-complexity, we additionally suggest a method of sampling document pairs from large datasets in a reproducible way, with tight bounds that prevent extrapolation of unreliable results due to poor sampling practices.

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Period Classification in Chinese Historical Texts
Zuoyu Tian | Sandra Kübler

In this study, we study language change in Chinese Biji by using a classification task: classifying Ancient Chinese texts by time periods. Specifically, we focus on a unique genre in classical Chinese literature: Biji (literally “notebook” or “brush notes”), i.e., collections of anecdotes, quotations, etc., anything authors consider noteworthy, Biji span hundreds of years across many dynasties and conserve informal language in written form. For these reasons, they are regarded as a good resource for investigating language change in Chinese (Fang, 2010). In this paper, we create a new dataset of 108 Biji across four dynasties. Based on the dataset, we first introduce a time period classification task for Chinese. Then we investigate different feature representation methods for classification. The results show that models using contextualized embeddings perform best. An analysis of the top features chosen by the word n-gram model (after bleaching proper nouns) confirms that these features are informative and correspond to observations and assumptions made by historical linguists.

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A Mixed-Methods Analysis of Western and Hong Kong–based Reporting on the 2019–2020 Protests
Arya D. McCarthy | James Scharf | Giovanna Maria Dora Dore

We apply statistical techniques from natural language processing to Western and Hong Kong–based English language newspaper articles that discuss the 2019–2020 Hong Kong protests of the Anti-Extradition Law Amendment Bill Movement. Topic modeling detects central themes of the reporting and shows the differing agendas toward one country, two systems. Embedding-based usage shift (at the word level) and sentiment analysis (at the document level) both support that Hong Kong–based reporting is more negative and more emotionally charged. A two-way test shows that while July 1, 2019 is a turning point for media portrayal, the differences between western- and Hong Kong–based reporting did not magnify when the protests began; rather, they already existed. Taken together, these findings clarify how the portrayal of activism in Hong Kong evolved throughout the Movement.

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Stylometric Literariness Classification: the Case of Stephen King
Andreas van Cranenburgh | Erik Ketzan

This paper applies stylometry to quantify the literariness of 73 novels and novellas by American author Stephen King, chosen as an extraordinary case of a writer who has been dubbed both “high” and “low” in literariness in critical reception. We operationalize literariness using a measure of stylistic distance (Cosine Delta) based on the 1000 most frequent words in two bespoke comparison corpora used as proxies for literariness: one of popular genre fiction, another of National Book Award-winning authors. We report that a supervised model is highly effective in distinguishing the two categories, with 94.6% macro average in a binary classification. We define two subsets of texts by King—“high” and “low” literariness works as suggested by critics and ourselves—and find that a predictive model does identify King’s Dark Tower series and novels such as Dolores Claiborne as among his most “literary” texts, consistent with critical reception, which has also ascribed postmodern qualities to the Dark Tower novels. Our results demonstrate the efficacy of Cosine Delta-based stylometry in quantifying the literariness of texts, while also highlighting the methodological challenges of literariness, especially in the case of Stephen King. The code and data to reproduce our results are available at https://github.com/andreasvc/kinglit
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Joint 15th Linguistic Annotation Workshop (LAW) and 3rd Designing Meaning Representations (DMR) Workshop

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Proceedings of the Joint 15th Linguistic Annotation Workshop (LAW) and 3rd Designing Meaning Representations (DMR) Workshop
Claire Bonial | Nianwen Xue

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Zero-shot cross-lingual Meaning Representation Transfer: Annotation of Hungarian using the Prague Functional Generative Description
Attila Novák | Borbála Novák | Csilla Novák

In this paper, we present the results of our experiments concerning the zero-shot cross-lingual performance of the PERIN sentence-to-graph semantic parser. We applied the PTG model trained using the PERIN parser on a 740k-token Czech newspaper corpus to Hungarian. We evaluated the performance of the parser using the official evaluation tool of the MRP 2020 shared task. The gold standard Hungarian annotation was created by manual correction of the output of the parser following the annotation manual of the tectogrammatical level of the Prague Dependency Treebank. An English model trained on a larger one-million-token English newspaper corpus is also available, however, we found that the Czech model performed significantly better on Hungarian input due to the fact that Hungarian is typologically more similar to Czech than to English. We have found that zero-shot transfer of the PTG meaning representation across typologically not-too-distant languages using a neural parser model based on a multilingual contextual language model followed by a manual correction by linguist experts seems to be a viable scenario.

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Theoretical and Practical Issues in the Semantic Annotation of Four Indigenous Languages
Jens E. L. Van Gysel | Meagan Vigus | Lukas Denk | Andrew Cowell | Rosa Vallejos | Tim O’Gorman | William Croft

Computational resources such as semantically annotated corpora can play an important role in enabling speakers of indigenous minority languages to participate in government, education, and other domains of public life in their own language. However, many languages – mainly those with small native speaker populations and without written traditions – have little to no digital support. One hurdle in creating such resources is that for many languages, few speakers would be capable of annotating texts – a task which requires literacy and some linguistic training – and that these experts’ time is typically in high demand for language planning work. This paper assesses whether typologically trained non-speakers of an indigenous language can feasibly perform semantic annotation using Uniform Meaning Representations, thus allowing for the creation of computational materials without putting further strain on community resources.

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Representing Implicit Positive Meaning of Negated Statements in AMR
Katharina Stein | Lucia Donatelli

Abstract Meaning Representation (AMR) has become popular for representing the meaning of natural language in graph structures. However, AMR does not represent scope information, posing a problem for its overall expressivity and specifically for drawing inferences from negated statements. This is the case with so-called “positive interpretations” of negated statements, in which implicit positive meaning is identified by inferring the opposite of the negation’s focus. In this work, we investigate how potential positive interpretations (PPIs) can be represented in AMR. We propose a logically motivated AMR structure for PPIs that makes the focus of negation explicit and sketch an initial proposal for a systematic methodology to generate this more expressive structure.

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AutoAspect: Automatic Annotation of Tense and Aspect for Uniform Meaning Representations
Daniel Chen | Martha Palmer | Meagan Vigus

We present AutoAspect, a novel, rule-based annotation tool for labeling tense and aspect. The pilot version annotates English data. The aspect labels are designed specifically for Uniform Meaning Representations (UMR), an annotation schema that aims to encode crosslingual semantic information. The annotation tool combines syntactic and semantic cues to assign aspects on a sentence-by-sentence basis, following a sequence of rules that each output a UMR aspect. Identified events proceed through the sequence until they are assigned an aspect. We achieve a recall of 76.17% for identifying UMR events and an accuracy of 62.57% on all identified events, with high precision values for 2 of the aspect labels.

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Can predicate-argument relationships be extracted from UD trees?
Adam Ek | Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Stergios Chatzikyriakidis

In this paper we investigate the possibility of extracting predicate-argument relations from UD trees (and enhanced UD graphs). Con- cretely, we apply UD parsers on an En- glish question answering/semantic-role label- ing data set (FitzGerald et al., 2018) and check if the annotations reflect the relations in the resulting parse trees, using a small number of rules to extract this information. We find that 79.1% of the argument-predicate pairs can be found in this way, on the basis of Ud- ify (Kondratyuk and Straka, 2019). Error anal- ysis reveals that half of the error cases are at- tributable to shortcomings in the dataset. The remaining errors are mostly due to predicate- argument relations not being extractible algo- rithmically from the UD trees (requiring se- mantic reasoning to be resolved). The parser itself is only responsible for a small portion of errors. Our analysis suggests a number of improvements to the UD annotation schema: we propose to enhance the schema in four ways, in order to capture argument-predicate relations. Additionally, we propose improve- ments regarding data collection for question answering/semantic-role labeling data.

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Classifying Divergences in Cross-lingual AMR Pairs
Shira Wein | Nathan Schneider

Translation divergences are varied and widespread, challenging approaches that rely on parallel text. To annotate translation divergences, we propose a schema grounded in the Abstract Meaning Representation (AMR), a sentence-level semantic framework instantiated for a number of languages. By comparing parallel AMR graphs, we can identify specific points of divergence. Each divergence is labeled with both a type and a cause. We release a small corpus of annotated English-Spanish data, and analyze the annotations in our corpus.

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A Linguistic Annotation Framework to Study Interactions in Multilingual Healthcare Conversational Forums
Ishani Mondal | Kalika Bali | Mohit Jain | Monojit Choudhury | Ashish Sharma | Evans Gitau | Jacki O’Neill | Kagonya Awori | Sarah Gitau

In recent years, remote digital healthcare using online chats has gained momentum, especially in the Global South. Though prior work has studied interaction patterns in online (health) forums, such as TalkLife, Reddit and Facebook, there has been limited work in understanding interactions in small, close-knit community of instant messengers. In this paper, we propose a linguistic annotation framework to facilitate analysis of health-focused WhatsApp groups. The primary aim of the framework is to understand interpersonal relationships among peer supporters in order to help develop NLP solutions for remote patient care and reduce burden of overworked healthcare providers. Our framework consists of fine-grained peer support categorization and message-level sentiment tagging. Additionally, due to the prevalence of code-mixing in such groups, we incorporate word-level language annotations. We use the proposed framework to study two WhatsApp groups in Kenya for youth living with HIV, facilitated by a healthcare provider.

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Sister Help: Data Augmentation for Frame-Semantic Role Labeling
Ayush Pancholy | Miriam R L Petruck | Swabha Swayamdipta

While FrameNet is widely regarded as a rich resource of semantics in natural language processing, a major criticism concerns its lack of coverage and the relative paucity of its labeled data compared to other commonly used lexical resources such as PropBank and VerbNet. This paper reports on a pilot study to address these gaps. We propose a data augmentation approach, which uses existing frame-specific annotation to automatically annotate other lexical units of the same frame which are unannotated. Our rule-based approach defines the notion of a **sister lexical unit** and generates frame-specific augmented data for training. We present experiments on frame-semantic role labeling which demonstrate the importance of this data augmentation: we obtain a large improvement to prior results on frame identification and argument identification for FrameNet, utilizing both full-text and lexicographic annotations under FrameNet. Our findings on data augmentation highlight the value of automatic resource creation for improved models in frame-semantic parsing.

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A Corpus Study of Creating Rule-Based Enhanced Universal Dependencies for German
Teresa Bürkle | Stefan Grünewald | Annemarie Friedrich

In this paper, we present a first attempt at enriching German Universal Dependencies (UD) treebanks with enhanced dependencies. Similarly to the converter for English (Schuster and Manning, 2016), we develop a rule-based system for deriving enhanced dependencies from the basic layer, covering three linguistic phenomena: relative clauses, coordination, and raising/control. For quality control, we manually correct or validate a set of 196 sentences, finding that around 90% of added relations are correct. Our data analysis reveals that difficulties arise mainly due to inconsistencies in the basic layer annotations. We show that the English system is in general applicable to German data, but that adapting to the particularities of the German treebanks and language increases precision and recall by up to 10%. Comparing the application of our converter on gold standard dependencies vs. automatic parses, we find that F1 drops by around 10% in the latter setting due to error propagation. Finally, an enhanced UD parser trained on a converted treebank performs poorly when evaluated against our annotations, indicating that more work remains to be done to create gold standard enhanced German treebanks.

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Subcategorizing Adverbials in Universal Conceptual Cognitive Annotation
Zhuxin Wang | Jakob Prange | Nathan Schneider

Universal Conceptual Cognitive Annotation (UCCA) is a semantic annotation scheme that organizes texts into coarse predicate-argument structure, offering broad coverage of semantic phenomena. At the same time, there is still need for a finer-grained treatment of many of the categories. The Adverbial category is of special interest, as it covers a wide range of fundamentally different meanings such as negation, causation, aspect, and event quantification. In this paper we introduce a refinement annotation scheme for UCCA’s Adverbial category, showing that UCCA Adverbials can indeed be subcategorized into at least 7 semantic types, and doing so can help clarify and disambiguate the otherwise coarse-grained labels. We provide a preliminary set of annotation guidelines, as well as pilot annotation experiments with high inter-annotator agreement, confirming the validity of the scheme.

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Simplifying annotation of intersections in time normalization annotation: exploring syntactic and semantic validation
Peiwen Su | Steven Bethard

While annotating normalized times in food security documents, we found that the semantically compositional annotation for time normalization (SCATE) scheme required several near-duplicate annotations to get the correct semantics for expressions like Nov. 7th to 11th 2021. To reduce this problem, we explored replacing SCATE’s Sub-Interval property with a Super-Interval property, that is, making the smallest units (e.g., 7th and 11th) rather than the largest units (e.g., 2021) the heads of the intersection chains. To ensure that the semantics of annotated time intervals remained unaltered despite our changes to the syntax of the annotation scheme, we applied several different techniques to validate our changes. These validation techniques detected and allowed us to resolve several important bugs in our automated translation from Sub-Interval to Super-Interval syntax.

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Overcoming the challenges in morphological annotation of Turkish in universal dependencies framework
Talha Bedir | Karahan Şahin | Onur Gungor | Suzan Uskudarli | Arzucan Özgür | Tunga Güngör | Balkiz Ozturk Basaran

This paper presents several challenges faced when annotating Turkish treebanks in accordance with the Universal Dependencies (UD) guidelines and proposes solutions to address them. Most of these challenges stem from the lack of adequate support in the UD framework to accurately represent null morphemes and complex derivations, which results in a significant loss of information for Turkish. This loss negatively impacts the tools that are developed based on these treebanks. We raised and discussed these issues within the community on the official UD portal. This paper presents these issues and our proposals to more accurately represent morphosyntactic information for Turkish while adhering to guidelines of UD. This work aims to contribute to the representation of Turkish and other agglutinative languages in UD-based treebanks, which in turn aids to develop more accurately annotated datasets for such languages.

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Automatic Entity State Annotation using the VerbNet Semantic Parser
Ghazaleh Kazeminejad | Martha Palmer | Tao Li | Vivek Srikumar

Tracking entity states is a natural language processing task assumed to require human annotation. In order to reduce the time and expenses associated with annotation, we introduce a new method to automatically extract entity states, including location and existence state of entities, following Dalvi et al. (2018) and Tandon et al. (2020). For this purpose, we rely primarily on the semantic representations generated by the state of the art VerbNet parser (Gung, 2020), and extract the entities (event participants) and their states, based on the semantic predicates of the generated VerbNet semantic representation, which is in propositional logic format. For evaluation, we used ProPara (Dalvi et al., 2018), a reading comprehension dataset which is annotated with entity states in each sentence, and tracks those states in paragraphs of natural human-authored procedural texts. Given the presented limitations of the method, the peculiarities of the ProPara dataset annotations, and that our system, Lexis, makes no use of task-specific training data and relies solely on VerbNet, the results are promising, showcasing the value of lexical resources.

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On Releasing Annotator-Level Labels and Information in Datasets
Vinodkumar Prabhakaran | Aida Mostafazadeh Davani | Mark Diaz

A common practice in building NLP datasets, especially using crowd-sourced annotations, involves obtaining multiple annotator judgements on the same data instances, which are then flattened to produce a single “ground truth” label or score, through majority voting, averaging, or adjudication. While these approaches may be appropriate in certain annotation tasks, such aggregations overlook the socially constructed nature of human perceptions that annotations for relatively more subjective tasks are meant to capture. In particular, systematic disagreements between annotators owing to their socio-cultural backgrounds and/or lived experiences are often obfuscated through such aggregations. In this paper, we empirically demonstrate that label aggregation may introduce representational biases of individual and group perspectives. Based on this finding, we propose a set of recommendations for increased utility and transparency of datasets for downstream use cases.

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Increasing Sentence-Level Comprehension Through Text Classification of Epistemic Functions
Maria Berger | Elizabeth Goldstein

Word embeddings capture semantic meaning of individual words. How to bridge word-level linguistic knowledge with sentence-level language representation is an open problem. This paper examines whether sentence-level representations can be achieved by building a custom sentence database focusing on one aspect of a sentence’s meaning. Our three separate semantic aspects are whether the sentence: (1) communicates a causal relationship, (2) indicates that two things are correlated with each other, and (3) expresses information or knowledge. The three classifiers provide epistemic information about a sentence’s content.

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Towards a Methodology Supporting Semiautomatic Annotation of HeadMovements in Video-recorded Conversations
Patrizia Paggio | Costanza Navarretta | Bart Jongejan | Manex Agirrezabal

We present a method to support the annotation of head movements in video-recorded conversations. Head movement segments from annotated multimodal data are used to train a model to detect head movements in unseen data. The resulting predicted movement sequences are uploaded to the ANVIL tool for post-annotation editing. The automatically identified head movements and the original annotations are compared to assess the overlap between the two. This analysis showed that movement onsets were more easily detected than offsets, and pointed at a number of patterns in the mismatches between original annotations and model predictions that could be dealt with in general terms in post-annotation guidelines.

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Intensionalizing Abstract Meaning Representations: Non-Veridicality and Scope
Gregor Williamson | Patrick Elliott | Yuxin Ji

Abstract Meaning Representation (AMR) is a graphical meaning representation language designed to represent propositional information about argument structure. However, at present it is unable to satisfyingly represent non-veridical intensional contexts, often licensing inappropriate inferences. In this paper, we show how to resolve the problem of non-veridicality without appealing to layered graphs through a mapping from AMRs into Simply-Typed Lambda Calculus (STLC). At least for some cases, this requires the introduction of a new role :content which functions as an intensional operator. The translation proposed is inspired by the formal linguistics literature on the event semantics of attitude reports. Next, we address the interaction of quantifier scope and intensional operators in so-called de re/de dicto ambiguities. We adopt a scope node from the literature and provide an explicit multidimensional semantics utilizing Cooper storage which allows us to derive the de re and de dicto scope readings as well as intermediate scope readings which prove difficult for accounts without a scope node.

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WikiGUM: Exhaustive Entity Linking for Wikification in 12 Genres
Jessica Lin | Amir Zeldes

Previous work on Entity Linking has focused on resources targeting non-nested proper named entity mentions, often in data from Wikipedia, i.e. Wikification. In this paper, we present and evaluate WikiGUM, a fully wikified dataset, covering all mentions of named entities, including their non-named and pronominal mentions, as well as mentions nested within other mentions. The dataset covers a broad range of 12 written and spoken genres, most of which have not been included in Entity Linking efforts to date, leading to poor performance by a pretrained SOTA system in our evaluation. The availability of a variety of other annotations for the same data also enables further research on entities in context.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 2nd International Workshop on Computational Approaches to Historical Language Change 2021

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Proceedings of the 2nd International Workshop on Computational Approaches to Historical Language Change 2021
Nina Tahmasebi | Adam Jatowt | Yang Xu | Simon Hengchen | Syrielle Montariol | Haim Dubossarsky

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Time-Aware Ancient Chinese Text Translation and Inference
Ernie Chang | Yow-Ting Shiue | Hui-Syuan Yeh | Vera Demberg

In this paper, we aim to address the challenges surrounding the translation of ancient Chinese text: (1) The linguistic gap due to the difference in eras results in translations that are poor in quality, and (2) most translations are missing the contextual information that is often very crucial to understanding the text. To this end, we improve upon past translation techniques by proposing the following: We reframe the task as a multi-label prediction task where the model predicts both the translation and its particular era. We observe that this helps to bridge the linguistic gap as chronological context is also used as auxiliary information. We validate our framework on a parallel corpus annotated with chronology information and show experimentally its efficacy in producing quality translation outputs. We release both the code and the data for future research.

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Three-part diachronic semantic change dataset for Russian
Andrey Kutuzov | Lidia Pivovarova

We present a manually annotated lexical semantic change dataset for Russian: RuShiftEval. Its novelty is ensured by a single set of target words annotated for their diachronic semantic shifts across three time periods, while the previous work either used only two time periods, or different sets of target words. The paper describes the composition and annotation procedure for the dataset. In addition, it is shown how the ternary nature of RuShiftEval allows to trace specific diachronic trajectories: ‘changed at a particular time period and stable afterwards’ or ‘was changing throughout all time periods’. Based on the analysis of the submissions to the recent shared task on semantic change detection for Russian, we argue that correctly identifying such trajectories can be an interesting sub-task itself.

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The Corpora They Are a-Changing: a Case Study in Italian Newspapers
Pierpaolo Basile | Annalina Caputo | Tommaso Caselli | Pierluigi Cassotti | Rossella Varvara

The use of automatic methods for the study of lexical semantic change (LSC) has led to the creation of evaluation benchmarks. Benchmark datasets, however, are intimately tied to the corpus used for their creation questioning their reliability as well as the robustness of automatic methods. This contribution investigates these aspects showing the impact of unforeseen social and cultural dimensions. We also identify a set of additional issues (OCR quality, named entities) that impact the performance of the automatic methods, especially when used to discover LSC.

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Linguistic change and historical periodization of Old Literary Finnish
Niko Partanen | Khalid Alnajjar | Mika Hämäläinen | Jack Rueter

In this study, we have normalized and lemmatized an Old Literary Finnish corpus using a lemmatization model trained on texts from Agricola. We analyse the error types that occur and appear in different decades, and use word error rate (WER) and different error types as a proxy for measuring linguistic innovation and change. We show that the proposed approach works, and the errors are connected to accumulating changes and innovations, which also results in a continuous decrease in the accuracy of the model. The described error types also guide further work in improving these models, and document the currently observed issues. We also have trained word embeddings for four centuries of lemmatized Old Literary Finnish, which are available on Zenodo.

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A diachronic evaluation of gender asymmetry in euphemism
Anna Kapron-King | Yang Xu

The use of euphemisms is a known driver of language change. It has been proposed that women use euphemisms more than men. Although there have been several studies investigating gender differences in language, the claim about euphemism usage has not been tested comprehensively through time. If women do use euphemisms more, this could mean that women also lead the formation of new euphemisms and language change over time. Using four large diachronic text corpora of English, we evaluate the claim that women use euphemisms more than men through a quantitative analysis. We assembled a list of 106 euphemism-taboo pairs to analyze their relative use through time by each gender in the corpora. Contrary to the existing belief, our results show that women do not use euphemisms with a higher proportion than men. We repeated the analysis using different subsets of the euphemism-taboo pairs list and found that our result was robust. Our study indicates that in a broad range of settings involving both speech and writing, and with varying degrees of formality, women do not use or form euphemisms more than men.

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The GLAUx corpus: methodological issues in designing a long-term, diverse, multi-layered corpus of Ancient Greek
Alek Keersmaekers

This paper describes the GLAUx project (“the Greek Language Automated”), an ongoing effort to develop a large long-term diachronic corpus of Greek, covering sixteen centuries of literary and non-literary material annotated with NLP methods. After providing an overview of related corpus projects and discussing the general architecture of the corpus, it zooms in on a number of larger methodological issues in the design of historical corpora. These include the encoding of textual variants, handling extralinguistic variation and annotating linguistic ambiguity. Finally, the long- and short-term perspectives of this project are discussed.

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Bhāṣācitra: Visualising the dialect geography of South Asia
Aryaman Arora | Adam Farris | Gopalakrishnan R | Samopriya Basu

We present Bhāṣācitra, a dialect mapping system for South Asia built on a database of linguistic studies of languages of the region annotated for topic and location data. We analyse language coverage and look towards applications to typology by visualising example datasets. The application is not only meant to be useful for feature mapping, but also serves as a new kind of interactive bibliography for linguists of South Asian languages.

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Modeling the Evolution of Word Senses with Force-Directed Layouts of Co-occurrence Networks
Tim Reke | Robert Schwanhold | Ralf Krestel

Languages evolve over time and the meaning of words can shift. Furthermore, individual words can have multiple senses. However, existing language models often only reflect one word sense per word and do not reflect semantic changes over time. While there are language models that can either model semantic change of words or multiple word senses, none of them cover both aspects simultaneously. We propose a novel force-directed graph layout algorithm to draw a network of frequently co-occurring words. In this way, we are able to use the drawn graph to visualize the evolution of word senses. In addition, we hope that jointly modeling semantic change and multiple senses of words results in improvements for the individual tasks.

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Tracking Semantic Change in Cognate Sets for English and Romance Languages
Ana Sabina Uban | Alina Maria Cristea | Anca Dinu | Liviu P. Dinu | Simona Georgescu | Laurentiu Zoicas

Semantic divergence in related languages is a key concern of historical linguistics. We cross-linguistically investigate the semantic divergence of cognate pairs in English and Romance languages, by means of word embeddings. To this end, we introduce a new curated dataset of cognates in all pairs of those languages. We describe the types of errors that occurred during the automated cognate identification process and manually correct them. Additionally, we label the English cognates according to their etymology, separating them into two groups: old borrowings and recent borrowings. On this curated dataset, we analyse word properties such as frequency and polysemy, and the distribution of similarity scores between cognate sets in different languages. We automatically identify different clusters of English cognates, setting a new direction of research in cognates, borrowings and possibly false friends analysis in related languages.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 12th International Workshop on Health Text Mining and Information Analysis

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Proceedings of the 12th International Workshop on Health Text Mining and Information Analysis
Eben Holderness | Antonio Jimeno Yepes | Alberto Lavelli | Anne-Lyse Minard | James Pustejovsky | Fabio Rinaldi

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ArCorona: Analyzing Arabic Tweets in the Early Days of Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic
Hamdy Mubarak | Sabit Hassan

Over the past few months, there were huge numbers of circulating tweets and discussions about Coronavirus (COVID-19) in the Arab region. It is important for policy makers and many people to identify types of shared tweets to better understand public behavior, topics of interest, requests from governments, sources of tweets, etc. It is also crucial to prevent spreading of rumors and misinformation about the virus or bad cures. To this end, we present the largest manually annotated dataset of Arabic tweets related to COVID-19. We describe annotation guidelines, analyze our dataset and build effective machine learning and transformer based models for classification.

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Multilingual Negation Scope Resolution for Clinical Text
Mareike Hartmann | Anders Søgaard

Negation scope resolution is key to high-quality information extraction from clinical texts, but so far, efforts to make encoders used for information extraction negation-aware have been limited to English. We present a universal approach to multilingual negation scope resolution, that overcomes the lack of training data by relying on disparate resources in different languages and domains. We evaluate two approaches to learn from these resources, training on combined data and training in a multi-task learning setup. Our experiments show that zero-shot scope resolution in clinical text is possible, and that combining available resources improves performance in most cases.

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Understanding Social Support Expressed in a COVID-19 Online Forum
Anietie Andy | Brian Chu | Ramie Fathy | Barrington Bennett | Daniel Stokes | Sharath Chandra Guntuku

In online forums focused on health and wellbeing, individuals tend to seek and give the following social support: emotional and informational support. Understanding the expressions of these social supports in an online COVID- 19 forum is important for: (a) the forum and its members to provide the right type of support to individuals and (b) determining the long term effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the well-being of the public, thereby informing interventions. In this work, we build four machine learning models to measure the extent of the following social supports expressed in each post in a COVID-19 online forum: (a) emotional support given (b) emotional support sought (c) informational support given, and (d) informational support sought. Using these models, we aim to: (i) determine if there is a correlation between the different social supports expressed in posts e.g. when members of the forum give emotional support in posts, do they also tend to give or seek informational support in the same post? (ii) determine how these social supports sought and given changes over time in published posts. We find that (i) there is a positive correlation between the informational support given in posts and the emotional support given and emotional support sought, respectively, in these posts and (ii) over time, users tended to seek more emotional support and give less emotional support.

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Fast and Effective Biomedical Entity Linking Using a Dual Encoder
Rajarshi Bhowmik | Karl Stratos | Gerard de Melo

Biomedical entity linking is the task of identifying mentions of biomedical concepts in text documents and mapping them to canonical entities in a target thesaurus. Recent advancements in entity linking using BERT-based models follow a retrieve and rerank paradigm, where the candidate entities are first selected using a retriever model, and then the retrieved candidates are ranked by a reranker model. While this paradigm produces state-of-the-art results, they are slow both at training and test time as they can process only one mention at a time. To mitigate these issues, we propose a BERT-based dual encoder model that resolves multiple mentions in a document in one shot. We show that our proposed model is multiple times faster than existing BERT-based models while being competitive in accuracy for biomedical entity linking. Additionally, we modify our dual encoder model for end-to-end biomedical entity linking that performs both mention span detection and entity disambiguation and out-performs two recently proposed models.

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Leveraging knowledge sources for detecting self-reports of particular health issues on social media
Parsa Bagherzadeh | Sabine Bergler

This paper investigates incorporating quality knowledge sources developed by experts for the medical domain as well as syntactic information for classification of tweets into four different health oriented categories. We claim that resources such as the MeSH hierarchy and currently available parse information are effective extensions of moderately sized training datasets for various fine-grained tweet classification tasks of self-reported health issues.

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Integrating Higher-Level Semantics into Robust Biomedical Name Representations
Pieter Fivez | Simon Suster | Walter Daelemans

Neural encoders of biomedical names are typically considered robust if representations can be effectively exploited for various downstream NLP tasks. To achieve this, encoders need to model domain-specific biomedical semantics while rivaling the universal applicability of pretrained self-supervised representations. Previous work on robust representations has focused on learning low-level distinctions between names of fine-grained biomedical concepts. These fine-grained concepts can also be clustered together to reflect higher-level, more general semantic distinctions, such as grouping the names nettle sting and tick-borne fever together under the description puncture wound of skin. It has not yet been empirically confirmed that training biomedical name encoders on fine-grained distinctions automatically leads to bottom-up encoding of such higher-level semantics. In this paper, we show that this bottom-up effect exists, but that it is still relatively limited. As a solution, we propose a scalable multi-task training regime for biomedical name encoders which can also learn robust representations using only higher-level semantic classes. These representations can generalise both bottom-up as well as top-down among various semantic hierarchies. Moreover, we show how they can be used out-of-the-box for improved unsupervised detection of hypernyms, while retaining robust performance on various semantic relatedness benchmarks.

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Classification of mental illnesses on social media using RoBERTa
Ankit Murarka | Balaji Radhakrishnan | Sushma Ravichandran

Given the current social distancing regulations across the world, social media has become the primary mode of communication for most people. This has isolated millions suffering from mental illnesses who are unable to receive assistance in person. They have increasingly turned to online platforms to express themselves and to look for guidance in dealing with their illnesses. Keeping this in mind, we propose a solution to classify mental illness posts on social media thereby enabling users to seek appropriate help. In this work, we classify five prominent kinds of mental illnesses- depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder, ADHD and PTSD by analyzing unstructured user data on Reddit. In addition, we share a new high-quality dataset1 to drive research on this topic. The dataset consists of the title and post texts from 17159 posts and 13 subreddits each associated with one of the five mental illnesses listed above or a None class indicating the absence of any mental illness. Our model is trained on Reddit data but is easily extensible to other social media platforms as well as demonstrated in our results. We believe that our work is the first multi-class model that uses a Transformer based architecture such as RoBERTa to analyze people’s emotions and psychology. We also demonstrate how we stress test our model using behavioral testing. Our dataset is publicly available and we encourage researchers to utilize this to advance research in this arena. We hope that this work contributes to the public health system by automating some of the detection process and alerting relevant authorities about users that need immediate help.

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Topic Modeling for Maternal Health Using Reddit
Shuang Gao | Shivani Pandya | Smisha Agarwal | João Sedoc

This paper applies topic modeling to understand maternal health topics, concerns, and questions expressed in online communities on social networking sites. We examine Latent Dirichlet Analysis (LDA) and two state-of-the-art methods: neural topic model with knowledge distillation (KD) and Embedded Topic Model (ETM) on maternal health texts collected from Reddit. The models are evaluated on topic quality and topic inference, using both auto-evaluation metrics and human assessment. We analyze a disconnect between automatic metrics and human evaluations. While LDA performs the best overall with the auto-evaluation metrics NPMI and Coherence, Neural Topic Model with Knowledge Distillation is favorable by expert evaluation. We also create a new partially expert annotated gold-standard maternal health topic

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FuzzyBIO: A Proposal for Fuzzy Representation of Discontinuous Entities
Anne Dirkson | Suzan Verberne | Wessel Kraaij

Discontinuous entities pose a challenge to named entity recognition (NER). These phenomena occur commonly in the biomedical domain. As a solution, expansions of the BIO representation scheme that can handle these entity types are commonly used (i.e. BIOHD). However, the extra tag types make the NER task more difficult to learn. In this paper we propose an alternative; a fuzzy continuous BIO scheme (FuzzyBIO). We focus on the task of Adverse Drug Response extraction and normalization to compare FuzzyBIO to BIOHD. We find that FuzzyBIO improves recall of NER for two of three data sets and results in a higher percentage of correctly identified disjoint and composite entities for all data sets. Using FuzzyBIO also improves end-to-end performance for continuous and composite entities in two of three data sets. Since FuzzyBIO improves performance for some data sets and the conversion from BIOHD to FuzzyBIO is straightforward, we recommend investigating which is more effective for any data set containing discontinuous entities.

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Cluster Analysis of Online Mental Health Discourse using Topic-Infused Deep Contextualized Representations
Atharva Kulkarni | Amey Hengle | Pradnya Kulkarni | Manisha Marathe

With mental health as a problem domain in NLP, the bulk of contemporary literature revolves around building better mental illness prediction models. The research focusing on the identification of discussion clusters in online mental health communities has been relatively limited. Moreover, as the underlying methodologies used in these studies mainly conform to the traditional machine learning models and statistical methods, the scope for introducing contextualized word representations for topic and theme extraction from online mental health communities remains open. Thus, in this research, we propose topic-infused deep contextualized representations, a novel data representation technique that uses autoencoders to combine deep contextual embeddings with topical information, generating robust representations for text clustering. Investigating the Reddit discourse on Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (C-PTSD), we elicit the thematic clusters representing the latent topics and themes discussed in the r/ptsd and r/CPTSD subreddits. Furthermore, we also present a qualitative analysis and characterization of each cluster, unraveling the prevalent discourse themes.

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Scientific Claim Verification with VerT5erini
Ronak Pradeep | Xueguang Ma | Rodrigo Nogueira | Jimmy Lin

This work describes the adaptation of a pretrained sequence-to-sequence model to the task of scientific claim verification in the biomedical domain. We propose a system called VerT5erini that exploits T5 for abstract retrieval, sentence selection, and label prediction, which are three critical sub-tasks of claim verification. We evaluate our pipeline on SciFACT, a newly curated dataset that requires models to not just predict the veracity of claims but also provide relevant sentences from a corpus of scientific literature that support the prediction. Empirically, our system outperforms a strong baseline in each of the three sub-tasks. We further show VerT5erini’s ability to generalize to two new datasets of COVID-19 claims using evidence from the CORD-19 corpus.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the First Workshop on Language Technology for Equality, Diversity and Inclusion

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Proceedings of the First Workshop on Language Technology for Equality, Diversity and Inclusion
Bharathi Raja Chakravarthi | John P. McCrae | Manel Zarrouk | Kalika Bali | Paul Buitelaar

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Impact of COVID-19 in Natural Language Processing Publications: a Disaggregated Study in Gender, Contribution and Experience
Christine Basta | Marta R. Costa-jussa

This study sheds light on the effects of COVID-19 in the particular field of Computational Linguistics and Natural Language Processing within Artificial Intelligence. We provide an inter-sectional study on gender, contribution, and experience that considers one school year (from August 2019 to August 2020) as a pandemic year. August is included twice for the purpose of an inter-annual comparison. While the trend in publications increased with the crisis, the results show that the ratio between female and male publications decreased. This only helps to reduce the importance of the female role in the scientific contributions of computational linguistics (it is now far below its peak of 0.24). The pandemic has a particularly negative effect on the production of female senior researchers in the first position of authors (maximum work), followed by the female junior researchers in the last position of authors (supervision or collaborative work).

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Adapting the Portuguese Braille System to Formal Semantics
Luís Filipe Cunha

Since the seminal work of Richard Montague in the 1970s, mathematical and logic tools have successfully been used to model several aspects of the meaning of natural language. However, visually impaired people continue to face serious difficulties in getting full access to this important instrument. Our paper aims to present a work in progress whose main goal is to provide blind students and researchers with an adequate method to deal with the different resources that are used in formal semantics. In particular, we intend to adapt the Portuguese Braille system in order to accommodate the most common symbols and formulas used in this kind of approach and to develop pedagogical procedures to facilitate its learnability. By making this formalization compatible with the Braille coding (either traditional and electronic), we hope to help blind people to learn and use this notation, essential to acquire a better understanding of a great number of semantic properties displayed by natural language.

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Cross-Lingual Transfer Learning for Hate Speech Detection
Irina Bigoulaeva | Viktor Hangya | Alexander Fraser

We address the task of automatic hate speech detection for low-resource languages. Rather than collecting and annotating new hate speech data, we show how to use cross-lingual transfer learning to leverage already existing data from higher-resource languages. Using bilingual word embeddings based classifiers we achieve good performance on the target language by training only on the source dataset. Using our transferred system we bootstrap on unlabeled target language data, improving the performance of standard cross-lingual transfer approaches. We use English as a high resource language and German as the target language for which only a small amount of annotated corpora are available. Our results indicate that cross-lingual transfer learning together with our approach to leverage additional unlabeled data is an effective way of achieving good performance on low-resource target languages without the need for any target-language annotations.

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hBERT + BiasCorp - Fighting Racism on the Web
Olawale Onabola | Zhuang Ma | Xie Yang | Benjamin Akera | Ibraheem Abdulrahman | Jia Xue | Dianbo Liu | Yoshua Bengio

Subtle and overt racism is still present both in physical and online communities today and has impacted many lives in different segments of the society. In this short piece of work, we present how we’re tackling this societal issue with Natural Language Processing. We are releasing BiasCorp, a dataset containing 139,090 comments and news segment from three specific sources - Fox News, BreitbartNews and YouTube. The first batch (45,000 manually annotated) is ready for publication. We are currently in the final phase of manually labeling the remaining dataset using Amazon Mechanical Turk. BERT has been used widely in several downstream tasks. In this work, we present hBERT, where we modify certain layers of the pretrained BERT model with the new Hopfield Layer. hBert generalizes well across different distributions with the added advantage of a reduced model complexity. We are also releasing a JavaScript library 3 and a Chrome Extension Application, to help developers make use of our trained model in web applications (say chat application) and for users to identify and report racially biased contents on the web respectively

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An Overview of Fairness in Data – Illuminating the Bias in Data Pipeline
Senthil Kumar B | Aravindan Chandrabose | Bharathi Raja Chakravarthi

Data in general encodes human biases by default; being aware of this is a good start, and the research around how to handle it is ongoing. The term ‘bias’ is extensively used in various contexts in NLP systems. In our research the focus is specific to biases such as gender, racism, religion, demographic and other intersectional views on biases that prevail in text processing systems responsible for systematically discriminating specific population, which is not ethical in NLP. These biases exacerbate the lack of equality, diversity and inclusion of specific population while utilizing the NLP applications. The tools and technology at the intermediate level utilize biased data, and transfer or amplify this bias to the downstream applications. However, it is not enough to be colourblind, gender-neutral alone when designing a unbiased technology – instead, we should take a conscious effort by designing a unified framework to measure and benchmark the bias. In this paper, we recommend six measures and one augment measure based on the observations of the bias in data, annotations, text representations and debiasing techniques.

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GEPSA, a tool for monitoring social challenges in digital press
Iñaki San Vicente | Xabier Saralegi | Nerea Zubia

This papers presents a platform for monitoring press narratives with respect to several social challenges, including gender equality, migrations and minority languages. As narratives are encoded in natural language, we have to use natural processing techniques to automate their analysis. Thus, crawled news are processed by means of several NLP modules, including named entity recognition, keyword extraction,document classification for social challenge detection, and sentiment analysis. A Flask powered interface provides data visualization for a user-based analysis of the data. This paper presents the architecture of the system and describes in detail its different components. Evaluation is provided for the modules related to extraction and classification of information regarding social challenges.

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Finding Spoiler Bias in Tweets by Zero-shot Learning and Knowledge Distilling from Neural Text Simplification
Avi Bleiweiss

Automatic detection of critical plot information in reviews of media items poses unique challenges to both social computing and computational linguistics. In this paper we propose to cast the problem of discovering spoiler bias in online discourse as a text simplification task. We conjecture that for an item-user pair, the simpler the user review we learn from an item summary the higher its likelihood to present a spoiler. Our neural model incorporates the advanced transformer network to rank the severity of a spoiler in user tweets. We constructed a sustainable high-quality movie dataset scraped from unsolicited review tweets and paired with a title summary and meta-data extracted from a movie specific domain. To a large extent, our quantitative and qualitative results weigh in on the performance impact of named entity presence in plot summaries. Pretrained on a split-and-rephrase corpus with knowledge distilled from English Wikipedia and fine-tuned on our movie dataset, our neural model shows to outperform both a language modeler and monolingual translation baselines.

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Findings of the Shared Task on Hope Speech Detection for Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion
Bharathi Raja Chakravarthi | Vigneshwaran Muralidaran

Hope is considered significant for the well-being, recuperation and restoration of human life by health professionals. Hope speech reflects the belief that one can discover pathways to their desired objectives and become roused to utilise those pathways. To encourage research in natural language processing towards positive reinforcement approach, we created a hope speech detection dataset. This paper reports on the shared task of hope speech detection for Tamil, English, and Malayalam languages. The shared task was conducted as a part of the EACL 2021 workshop on Language Technology for Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion (LT-EDI-2021). We summarize here the datasets for this challenge which are openly available at https://competitions.codalab.org/competitions/27653, and present an overview of the methods and the results of the competing systems. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first shared task to conduct hope speech detection.

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dhivya-hope-detection@LT-EDI-EACL2021: Multilingual Hope Speech Detection for Code-mixed and Transliterated Texts
Dhivya Chinnappa

In this paper we work with a hope speech detection corpora that includes English, Tamil, and Malayalam datasets. We present a two phase mechanism to detect hope speech. In the first phase we build a classifier to identify the language of the text. In the second phase, we build a classifier to detect hope speech, non hope speech, or not lang labels. Experimental results show that hope speech detection is challenging and there is scope for improvement.

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KU_NLP@LT-EDI-EACL2021: A Multilingual Hope Speech Detection for Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion using Context Aware Embeddings
Junaida M K | Ajees A P

Hope speech detection is a new task for finding and highlighting positive comments or supporting content from user-generated social media comments. For this task, we have used a Shared Task multilingual dataset on Hope Speech Detection for Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion (HopeEDI) for three languages English, code-switched Tamil and Malayalam. In this paper, we present deep learning techniques using context-aware string embeddings for word representations and Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) and pooled document embeddings for text representation. We have evaluated and compared the three models for each language with different approaches. Our proposed methodology works fine and achieved higher performance than baselines. The highest weighted average F-scores of 0.93, 0.58, and 0.84 are obtained on the task organisers’ final evaluation test set. The proposed models are outperforming the baselines by 3%, 2% and 11% in absolute terms for English, Tamil and Malayalam respectively.

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EDIOne@LT-EDI-EACL2021: Pre-trained Transformers with Convolutional Neural Networks for Hope Speech Detection.
Suman Dowlagar | Radhika Mamidi

Hope is an essential aspect of mental health stability and recovery in every individual in this fast-changing world. Any tools and methods developed for detection, analysis, and generation of hope speech will be beneficial. In this paper, we propose a model on hope-speech detection to automatically detect web content that may play a positive role in diffusing hostility on social media. We perform the experiments by taking advantage of pre-processing and transfer-learning models. We observed that the pre-trained multilingual-BERT model with convolution neural networks gave the best results. Our model ranked first, third, and fourth ranks on English, Malayalam-English, and Tamil-English code-mixed datasets.

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ssn_diBERTsity@LT-EDI-EACL2021:Hope Speech Detection on multilingual YouTube comments via transformer based approach
Arunima S | Akshay Ramakrishnan | Avantika Balaji | Thenmozhi D. | Senthil Kumar B

In recent times, there exists an abundance of research to classify abusive and offensive texts focusing on negative comments but only minimal research using the positive reinforcement approach. The task was aimed at classifying texts into ‘Hope_speech’, ‘Non_hope_speech’, and ‘Not in language’. The datasets were provided by the LT-EDI organisers in English, Tamil, and Malayalam language with texts sourced from YouTube comments. We trained our data using transformer models, specifically mBERT for Tamil and Malayalam and BERT for English, and achieved weighted average F1-scores of 0.46, 0.81, 0.92 for Tamil, Malayalam, and English respectively.

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IIITT@LT-EDI-EACL2021-Hope Speech Detection: There is always hope in Transformers
Karthik Puranik | Adeep Hande | Ruba Priyadharshini | Sajeetha Thavareesan | Bharathi Raja Chakravarthi

In a world with serious challenges like climate change, religious and political conflicts, global pandemics, terrorism, and racial discrimination, an internet full of hate speech, abusive and offensive content is the last thing we desire for. In this paper, we work to identify and promote positive and supportive content on these platforms. We work with several transformer-based models to classify social media comments as hope speech or not hope speech in English, Malayalam, and Tamil languages. This paper portrays our work for the Shared Task on Hope Speech Detection for Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion at LT-EDI 2021- EACL 2021. The codes for our best submission can be viewed.

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IIIT_DWD@LT-EDI-EACL2021: Hope Speech Detection in YouTube multilingual comments
Sunil Saumya | Ankit Kumar Mishra

Language as a significant part of communication should be inclusive of equality and diversity. The internet user’s language has a huge influence on peer users all over the world. People express their views through language on virtual platforms like Facebook, Twitter, YouTube etc. People admire the success of others, pray for their well-being, and encourage on their failure. Such inspirational comments are hope speech comments. At the same time, a group of users promotes discrimination based on gender, racial, sexual orientation, persons with disability, and other minorities. The current paper aims to identify hope speech comments which are very important to move on in life. Various machine learning and deep learning based models (such as support vector machine, logistics regression, convolutional neural network, recurrent neural network) are employed to identify the hope speech in the given YouTube comments. The YouTube comments are available in English, Tamil and Malayalam languages and are part of the task “EACL-2021:Hope Speech Detection for Equality, Diversity and Inclusion”.

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IRNLP_DAIICT@LT-EDI-EACL2021: Hope Speech detection in Code Mixed text using TF-IDF Char N-grams and MuRIL
Bhargav Dave | Shripad Bhat | Prasenjit Majumder

This paper presents the participation of the IRNLP_DAIICT team from Information Retrieval and Natural Language Processing lab at DA-IICT, India in LT-EDI@EACL2021 Hope Speech Detection task. The aim of this shared task is to identify hope speech from a code-mixed data-set of YouTube comments. The task is to classify comments into Hope Speech, Non Hope speech or Not in language, for three languages: English, Malayalam-English and Tamil-English. We use TF-IDF character n-grams and pretrained MuRIL embeddings for text representation and Logistic Regression and Linear SVM for classification. Our best approach achieved second, eighth and fifth rank with weighted F1 score of 0.92, 0.75 and 0.57 in English, Malayalam-English and Tamil-English on test dataset respectively

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ZYJ@LT-EDI-EACL2021:XLM-RoBERTa-Based Model with Attention for Hope Speech Detection
Yingjia Zhao | Xin Tao

Due to the development of modern computer technology and the increase in the number of online media users, we can see all kinds of posts and comments everywhere on the internet. Hope speech can not only inspire the creators but also make other viewers pleasant. It is necessary to effectively and automatically detect hope speech. This paper describes the approach of our team in the task of hope speech detection. We use the attention mechanism to adjust the weight of all the output layers of XLM-RoBERTa to make full use of the information extracted from each layer, and use the weighted sum of all the output layers to complete the classification task. And we use the Stratified-K-Fold method to enhance the training data set. We achieve a weighted average F1-score of 0.59, 0.84, and 0.92 for Tamil, Malayalam, and English language, ranked 3rd, 2nd, and 2nd.

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TEAM HUB@LT-EDI-EACL2021: Hope Speech Detection Based On Pre-trained Language Model
Bo Huang | Yang Bai

This article introduces the system description of TEAM_HUB team participating in LT-EDI 2021: Hope Speech Detection. This shared task is the first task related to the desired voice detection. The data set in the shared task consists of three different languages (English, Tamil, and Malayalam). The task type is text classification. Based on the analysis and understanding of the task description and data set, we designed a system based on a pre-trained language model to complete this shared task. In this system, we use methods and models that combine the XLM-RoBERTa pre-trained language model and the Tf-Idf algorithm. In the final result ranking announced by the task organizer, our system obtained F1 scores of 0.93, 0.84, 0.59 on the English dataset, Malayalam dataset, and Tamil dataset. Our submission results are ranked 1, 2, and 3 respectively.

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cs_english@LT-EDI-EACL2021: Hope Speech Detection Based On Fine-tuning ALBERT Model
Shi Chen | Bing Kong

This paper mainly introduces the relevant content of the task “Hope Speech Detection for Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion at LT-EDI 2021-EACL 2021”. A total of three language datasets were provided, and we chose the English dataset to complete this task. The specific task objective is to classify the given speech into ‘Hope speech’, ‘Not Hope speech’, and ‘Not in intended language’. In terms of method, we use fine-tuned ALBERT and K fold cross-validation to accomplish this task. In the end, we achieved a good result in the rank list of the task result, and the final F1 score was 0.93, tying for first place. However, we will continue to try to improve methods to get better results in future work.

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GCDH@LT-EDI-EACL2021: XLM-RoBERTa for Hope Speech Detection in English, Malayalam, and Tamil
Stefan Ziehe | Franziska Pannach | Aravind Krishnan

This paper describes approaches to identify Hope Speech in short, informal texts in English, Malayalam and Tamil using different machine learning techniques. We demonstrate that even very simple baseline algorithms perform reasonably well on this task if provided with enough training data. However, our best performing algorithm is a cross-lingual transfer learning approach in which we fine-tune XLM-RoBERTa.

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TeamUNCC@LT-EDI-EACL2021: Hope Speech Detection using Transfer Learning with Transformers
Khyati Mahajan | Erfan Al-Hossami | Samira Shaikh

In this paper, we describe our approach towards utilizing pre-trained models for the task of hope speech detection. We participated in Task 2: Hope Speech Detection for Equality, Diversity and Inclusion at LT-EDI-2021 @ EACL2021. The goal of this task is to predict the presence of hope speech, along with the presence of samples that do not belong to the same language in the dataset. We describe our approach to fine-tuning RoBERTa for Hope Speech detection in English and our approach to fine-tuning XLM-RoBERTa for Hope Speech detection in Tamil and Malayalam, two low resource Indic languages. We demonstrate the performance of our approach on classifying text into hope-speech, non-hope and not-language. Our approach ranked 1st in English (F1 = 0.93), 1st in Tamil (F1 = 0.61) and 3rd in Malayalam (F1 = 0.83).

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Autobots@LT-EDI-EACL2021: One World, One Family: Hope Speech Detection with BERT Transformer Model
Sunil Gundapu | Radhika Mamidi

The rapid rise of online social networks like YouTube, Facebook, Twitter allows people to express their views more widely online. However, at the same time, it can lead to an increase in conflict and hatred among consumers in the form of freedom of speech. Therefore, it is essential to take a positive strengthening method to research on encouraging, positive, helping, and supportive social media content. In this paper, we describe a Transformer-based BERT model for Hope speech detection for equality, diversity, and inclusion, submitted for LT-EDI-2021 Task 2. Our model achieves a weighted averaged f1-score of 0.93 on the test set.

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Amrita@LT-EDI-EACL2021: Hope Speech Detection on Multilingual Text
Thara S | Ravi teja Tasubilli | Kothamasu Sai rahul

Analysis and deciphering code-mixed data is imperative in academia and industry, in a multilingual country like India, in order to solve problems apropos Natural Language Processing. This paper proposes a bidirectional long short-term memory (BiLSTM) with the attention-based approach, in solving the hope speech detection problem. Using this approach an F1-score of 0.73 (9thrank) in the Malayalam-English data set was achieved from a total of 31 teams who participated in the competition.

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Hopeful Men@LT-EDI-EACL2021: Hope Speech Detection Using Indic Transliteration and Transformers
Ishan Sanjeev Upadhyay | Nikhil E | Anshul Wadhawan | Radhika Mamidi

This paper aims to describe the approach we used to detect hope speech in the HopeEDI dataset. We experimented with two approaches. In the first approach, we used contextual embeddings to train classifiers using logistic regression, random forest, SVM, and LSTM based models. The second approach involved using a majority voting ensemble of 11 models which were obtained by fine-tuning pre-trained transformer models (BERT, ALBERT, RoBERTa, IndicBERT) after adding an output layer. We found that the second approach was superior for English, Tamil and Malayalam. Our solution got a weighted F1 score of 0.93, 0.75 and 0.49 for English, Malayalam and Tamil respectively. Our solution ranked 1st in English, 8th in Malayalam and 11th in Tamil.

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Hopeful NLP@LT-EDI-EACL2021: Finding Hope in YouTube Comment Section
Vasudev Awatramani

The proliferation of Hate Speech and misinformation in social media is fast becoming a menace to society. In compliment, the dissemination of hate-diffusing, promising and anti-oppressive messages become a unique alternative. Unfortunately, due to its complex nature as well as the relatively limited manifestation in comparison to hostile and neutral content, the identification of Hope Speech becomes a challenge. This work revolves around the detection of Hope Speech in Youtube comments, for the Shared Task on Hope Speech Detection for Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion. We achieve an f-score of 0.93, ranking 1st on the leaderboard for English comments.

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NLP-CUET@LT-EDI-EACL2021: Multilingual Code-Mixed Hope Speech Detection using Cross-lingual Representation Learner
Eftekhar Hossain | Omar Sharif | Mohammed Moshiul Hoque

In recent years, several systems have been developed to regulate the spread of negativity and eliminate aggressive, offensive or abusive contents from the online platforms. Nevertheless, a limited number of researches carried out to identify positive, encouraging and supportive contents. In this work, our goal is to identify whether a social media post/comment contains hope speech or not. We propose three distinct models to identify hope speech in English, Tamil and Malayalam language to serve this purpose. To attain this goal, we employed various machine learning (SVM, LR, ensemble), deep learning (CNN+BiLSTM) and transformer (m-BERT, Indic-BERT, XLNet, XLM-R) based methods. Results indicate that XLM-R outdoes all other techniques by gaining a weighted f_1-score of 0.93, 0.60 and 0.85 respectively for English, Tamil and Malayalam language. Our team has achieved 1st, 2nd and 1st rank in these three tasks respectively.

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Simon @ LT-EDI-EACL2021: Detecting Hope Speech with BERT
Qinyu Que

In today’s society, the rapid development of communication technology allows us to communicate with people from different parts of the world. In the process of communication, each person treats others differently. Some people are used to using offensive and sarcastic language to express their views. These words cause pain to others and make people feel down. Some people are used to sharing happiness with others and encouraging others. Such people bring joy and hope to others through their words. On social media platforms, these two kinds of language are all over the place. If people want to make the online world a better place, they will have to deal with both. So identifying offensive language and hope language is an essential task. There have been many assignments about offensive language. Shared Task on Hope Speech Detection for Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion at LT-EDI 2021-EACL 2021 uses another unique perspective – to identify the language of Hope to make contributions to society. The XLM-Roberta model is an excellent multilingual model. Our team used a fine-tuned XLM-Roberta model to accomplish this task.

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MUCS@LT-EDI-EACL2021:CoHope-Hope Speech Detection for Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion in Code-Mixed Texts
Fazlourrahman Balouchzahi | Aparna B K | H L Shashirekha

This paper describes the models submitted by the team MUCS for “Hope Speech Detection for Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion-EACL 2021” shared task that aims at classifying a comment / post in English and code-mixed texts in two language pairs, namely, Tamil-English (Ta-En) and Malayalam-English (Ma-En) into one of the three predefined categories, namely, “Hope_speech”, “Non_hope_speech”, and “other_languages”. Three models namely, CoHope-ML, CoHope-NN, and CoHope-TL based on Ensemble of classifiers, Keras Neural Network (NN) and BiLSTM with Conv1d model respectively are proposed for the shared task. CoHope-ML, CoHope-NN models are trained on a feature set comprised of char sequences extracted from sentences combined with words for Ma-En and Ta-En code-mixed texts and a combination of word and char ngrams along with syntactic word ngrams for English text. CoHope-TL model consists of three major parts: training tokenizer, BERT Language Model (LM) training and then using pre-trained BERT LM as weights in BiLSTM-Conv1d model. Out of three proposed models, CoHope-ML model (best among our models) obtained 1st, 2nd, and 3rd ranks with weighted F1-scores of 0.85, 0.92, and 0.59 for Ma-En, English and Ta-En texts respectively.

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Spartans@LT-EDI-EACL2021: Inclusive Speech Detection using Pretrained Language Models
Megha Sharma | Gaurav Arora

We describe our system that ranked first in Hope Speech Detection (HSD) shared task and fourth in Offensive Language Identification (OLI) shared task, both in Tamil language. The goal of HSD and OLI is to identify if a code-mixed comment or post contains hope speech or offensive content respectively. We pre-train a transformer-based model RoBERTa using synthetically generated code-mixed data and use it in an ensemble along with their pre-trained ULMFiT model available from iNLTK.

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CFILT IIT Bombay@LT-EDI-EACL2021: Hope Speech Detection for Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion using Multilingual Representation fromTransformers
Pankaj Singh | Prince Kumar | Pushpak Bhattacharyya

With the internet becoming part and parcel of our lives, engagement in social media has increased a lot. Identifying and eliminating offensive content from social media has become of utmost priority to prevent any kind of violence. However, detecting encouraging, supportive and positive content is equally important to prevent misuse of censorship targeted to attack freedom of speech. This paper presents our system for the shared task Hope Speech Detection for Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion at LT-EDI, EACL 2021. The data for this shared task is provided in English, Tamil, and Malayalam which was collected from YouTube comments. It is a multiclass classification problem where each data instance is categorized into one of the three classes: ‘Hope speech’, ‘Not hope speech’, and ‘Not in intended language’. We propose a system that employs multilingual transformer models to obtain the representation of text and classifies it into one of the three classes. We explored the use of multilingual models trained specifically for Indian languages along with generic multilingual models. Our system was ranked 2nd for English, 2nd for Malayalam, and 7th for the Tamil language in the final leader board published by organizers and obtained a weighted F1-score of 0.92, 0.84, 0.55 respectively on the hidden test dataset used for the competition. We have made our system publicly available at GitHub.

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IIITK@LT-EDI-EACL2021: Hope Speech Detection for Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion in Tamil , Malayalam and English
Nikhil Ghanghor | Rahul Ponnusamy | Prasanna Kumar Kumaresan | Ruba Priyadharshini | Sajeetha Thavareesan | Bharathi Raja Chakravarthi

This paper describes the IIITK’s team submissions to the hope speech detection for equality, diversity and inclusion in Dravidian languages shared task organized by LT-EDI 2021 workshop@EACL 2021. Our best configurations for the shared tasks achieve weighted F1 scores of 0.60 for Tamil, 0.83 for Malayalam, and 0.93 for English. We have secured ranks of 4, 3, 2 in Tamil, Malayalam and English respectively.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Multimodal Artificial Intelligence

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Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Multimodal Artificial Intelligence
Amir Zadeh | Louis-Philippe Morency | Paul Pu Liang | Candace Ross | Ruslan Salakhutdinov | Soujanya Poria | Erik Cambria | Kelly Shi

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Multimodal Weighted Fusion of Transformers for Movie Genre Classification
Isaac Rodríguez Bribiesca | Adrián Pastor López Monroy | Manuel Montes-y-Gómez

The Multimodal Transformer showed to be a competitive model for multimodal tasks involving textual, visual and audio signals. However, as more modalities are involved, its late fusion by concatenation starts to have a negative impact on the model’s performance. Besides, interpreting model’s predictions becomes difficult, as one would have to look at the different attention activation matrices. In order to overcome these shortcomings, we propose to perform late fusion by adding a GMU module, which effectively allows the model to weight modalities at instance level, improving its performance while providing a better interpretabilty mechanism. In the experiments, we compare our proposed model (MulT-GMU) against the original implementation (MulT-Concat) and a SOTA model tested in a movie genre classification dataset. Our approach, MulT-GMU, outperforms both, MulT-Concat and previous SOTA model.

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On Randomized Classification Layers and Their Implications in Natural Language Generation
Gal-Lev Shalev | Gabi Shalev | Joseph Keshet

In natural language generation tasks, a neural language model is used for generating a sequence of words forming a sentence. The topmost weight matrix of the language model, known as the classification layer, can be viewed as a set of vectors, each representing a target word from the target dictionary. The target word vectors, along with the rest of the model parameters, are learned and updated during training. In this paper, we analyze the properties encoded in the target vectors and question the necessity of learning these vectors. We suggest to randomly draw the target vectors and set them as fixed so that no weights updates are being made during training. We show that by excluding the vectors from the optimization, the number of parameters drastically decreases with a marginal effect on the performance. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our method in image-captioning and machine-translation.

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COIN: Conversational Interactive Networks for Emotion Recognition in Conversation
Haidong Zhang | Yekun Chai

Emotion recognition in conversation has received considerable attention recently because of its practical industrial applications. Existing methods tend to overlook the immediate mutual interaction between different speakers in the speaker-utterance level, or apply single speaker-agnostic RNN for utterances from different speakers. We propose COIN, a conversational interactive model to mitigate this problem by applying state mutual interaction within history contexts. In addition, we introduce a stacked global interaction module to capture the contextual and inter-dependency representation in a hierarchical manner. To improve the robustness and generalization during training, we generate adversarial examples by applying the minor perturbations on multimodal feature inputs, unveiling the benefits of adversarial examples for emotion detection. The proposed model empirically achieves the current state-of-the-art results on the IEMOCAP benchmark dataset.

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A First Look: Towards Explainable TextVQA Models via Visual and Textual Explanations
Varun Nagaraj Rao | Xingjian Zhen | Karen Hovsepian | Mingwei Shen

Explainable deep learning models are advantageous in many situations. Prior work mostly provide unimodal explanations through post-hoc approaches not part of the original system design. Explanation mechanisms also ignore useful textual information present in images. In this paper, we propose MTXNet, an end-to-end trainable multimodal architecture to generate multimodal explanations, which focuses on the text in the image. We curate a novel dataset TextVQA-X, containing ground truth visual and multi-reference textual explanations that can be leveraged during both training and evaluation. We then quantitatively show that training with multimodal explanations complements model performance and surpasses unimodal baselines by up to 7% in CIDEr scores and 2% in IoU. More importantly, we demonstrate that the multimodal explanations are consistent with human interpretations, help justify the models’ decision, and provide useful insights to help diagnose an incorrect prediction. Finally, we describe a real-world e-commerce application for using the generated multimodal explanations.

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Multi Task Learning based Framework for Multimodal Classification
Danting Zeng

Large-scale multi-modal classification aim to distinguish between different multi-modal data, and it has drawn dramatically attentions since last decade. In this paper, we propose a multi-task learning-based framework for the multimodal classification task, which consists of two branches: multi-modal autoencoder branch and attention-based multi-modal modeling branch. Multi-modal autoencoder can receive multi-modal features and obtain the interactive information which called multi-modal encoder feature, and use this feature to reconstitute all the input data. Besides, multi-modal encoder feature can be used to enrich the raw dataset, and improve the performance of downstream tasks (such as classification task). As for attention-based multimodal modeling branch, we first employ attention mechanism to make the model focused on important features, then we use the multi-modal encoder feature to enrich the input information, achieve a better performance. We conduct extensive experiments on different dataset, the results demonstrate the effectiveness of proposed framework.

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Validity-Based Sampling and Smoothing Methods for Multiple Reference Image Captioning
Shunta Nagasawa | Yotaro Watanabe | Hitoshi Iyatomi

In image captioning, multiple captions are often provided as ground truths, since a valid caption is not always uniquely determined. Conventional methods randomly select a single caption and treat it as correct, but there have been few effective training methods that utilize multiple given captions. In this paper, we proposed two training technique for making effective use of multiple reference captions: 1) validity-based caption sampling (VBCS), which prioritizes the use of captions that are estimated to be highly valid during training, and 2) weighted caption smoothing (WCS), which applies smoothing only to the relevant words the reference caption to reflect multiple reference captions simultaneously. Experiments show that our proposed methods improve CIDEr by 2.6 points and BLEU4 by 0.9 points from baseline on the MSCOCO dataset.

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Modality-specific Distillation
Woojeong Jin | Maziar Sanjabi | Shaoliang Nie | Liang Tan | Xiang Ren | Hamed Firooz

Large neural networks are impractical to deploy on mobile devices due to their heavy computational cost and slow inference. Knowledge distillation (KD) is a technique to reduce the model size while retaining performance by transferring knowledge from a large “teacher” model to a smaller “student” model. However, KD on multimodal datasets such as vision-language datasets is relatively unexplored and digesting such multimodal information is challenging since different modalities present different types of information. In this paper, we propose modality-specific distillation (MSD) to effectively transfer knowledge from a teacher on multimodal datasets. Existing KD approaches can be applied to multimodal setup, but a student doesn’t have access to modality-specific predictions. Our idea aims at mimicking a teacher’s modality-specific predictions by introducing an auxiliary loss term for each modality. Because each modality has different importance for predictions, we also propose weighting approaches for the auxiliary losses; a meta-learning approach to learn the optimal weights on these loss terms. In our experiments, we demonstrate the effectiveness of our MSD and the weighting scheme and show that it achieves better performance than KD.

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Cold Start Problem For Automated Live Video Comments
Hao Wu | François Pitie | Gareth Jones

Live video comments, or ”danmu”, are an emerging feature on Asian online video platforms. Danmu are time-synchronous comments that are overlaid on a video playback. These comments uniquely enrich the experience and engagement of their users. These comments have become a determining factor in the popularity of the videos. Similar to the ”cold start problem” in recommender systems, a video will only start to attract attention when sufficient danmu comments have been posted on it. We study this video cold start problem and examine how new comments can be generated automatically on less-commented videos. We propose to predict the danmu comments by exploiting a multi-modal combination of the video visual content, subtitles, audio signals, and any surrounding comments (when they exist). Our method fuses these multi-modalities in a transformer network which is then trained for different comment density scenarios. We evaluate our proposed system through both a retrieval based evaluation method, as well as human judgement. Results show that our proposed system improves significantly over state-of-the-art methods.

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¡Qué maravilla! Multimodal Sarcasm Detection in Spanish: a Dataset and a Baseline
Khalid Alnajjar | Mika Hämäläinen

We construct the first ever multimodal sarcasm dataset for Spanish. The audiovisual dataset consists of sarcasm annotated text that is aligned with video and audio. The dataset represents two varieties of Spanish, a Latin American variety and a Peninsular Spanish variety, which ensures a wider dialectal coverage for this global language. We present several models for sarcasm detection that will serve as baselines in the future research. Our results show that results with text only (89%) are worse than when combining text with audio (91.9%). Finally, the best results are obtained when combining all the modalities: text, audio and video (93.1%). Our dataset will be published on Zenodo with access granted by request.

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A Package for Learning on Tabular and Text Data with Transformers
Ken Gu | Akshay Budhkar

Recent progress in natural language processing has led to Transformer architectures becoming the predominant model used for natural language tasks. However, in many real- world datasets, additional modalities are included which the Transformer does not directly leverage. We present Multimodal- Toolkit, an open-source Python package to incorporate text and tabular (categorical and numerical) data with Transformers for downstream applications. Our toolkit integrates well with Hugging Face’s existing API such as tokenization and the model hub which allows easy download of different pre-trained models.

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Semantic Aligned Multi-modal Transformer for Vision-LanguageUnderstanding: A Preliminary Study on Visual QA
Han Ding | Li Erran Li | Zhiting Hu | Yi Xu | Dilek Hakkani-Tur | Zheng Du | Belinda Zeng

Recent vision-language understanding approaches adopt a multi-modal transformer pre-training and finetuning paradigm. Prior work learns representations of text tokens and visual features with cross-attention mechanisms and captures the alignment solely based on indirect signals. In this work, we propose to enhance the alignment mechanism by incorporating image scene graph structures as the bridge between the two modalities, and learning with new contrastive objectives. In our preliminary study on the challenging compositional visual question answering task, we show the proposed approach achieves improved results, demonstrating potentials to enhance vision-language understanding.

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GraghVQA: Language-Guided Graph Neural Networks for Graph-based Visual Question Answering
Weixin Liang | Yanhao Jiang | Zixuan Liu

Images are more than a collection of objects or attributes — they represent a web of relationships among interconnected objects. Scene Graph has emerged as a new modality as a structured graphical representation of images. Scene Graph encodes objects as nodes connected via pairwise relations as edges. To support question answering on scene graphs, we propose GraphVQA, a language-guided graph neural network framework that translates and executes a natural language question as multiple iterations of message passing among graph nodes. We explore the design space of GraphVQA framework, and discuss the trade-off of different design choices. Our experiments on GQA dataset show that GraphVQA outperforms the state-of-the-art accuracy by a large margin (88.43% vs. 94.78%).

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Learning to Select Question-Relevant Relations for Visual Question Answering
Jaewoong Lee | Heejoon Lee | Hwanhee Lee | Kyomin Jung

Previous existing visual question answering (VQA) systems commonly use graph neural networks(GNNs) to extract visual relationships such as semantic relations or spatial relations. However, studies that use GNNs typically ignore the importance of each relation and simply concatenate outputs from multiple relation encoders. In this paper, we propose a novel layer architecture that fuses multiple visual relations through an attention mechanism to address this issue. Specifically, we develop a model that uses question embedding and joint embedding of the encoders to obtain dynamic attention weights with regard to the type of questions. Using the learnable attention weights, the proposed model can efficiently use the necessary visual relation features for a given question. Experimental results on the VQA 2.0 dataset demonstrate that the proposed model outperforms existing graph attention network-based architectures. Additionally, we visualize the attention weight and show that the proposed model assigns a higher weight to relations that are more relevant to the question.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Meta Learning and Its Applications to Natural Language Processing

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Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Meta Learning and Its Applications to Natural Language Processing
Hung-Yi Lee | Mitra Mohtarami | Shang-Wen Li | Di Jin | Mandy Korpusik | Shuyan Dong | Ngoc Thang Vu | Dilek Hakkani-Tur

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Meta-Reinforcement Learning for Mastering Multiple Skills and Generalizing across Environments in Text-based Games
Zhenjie Zhao | Mingfei Sun | Xiaojuan Ma

Text-based games can be used to develop task-oriented text agents for accomplishing tasks with high-level language instructions, which has potential applications in domains such as human-robot interaction. Given a text instruction, reinforcement learning is commonly used to train agents to complete the intended task owing to its convenience of learning policies automatically. However, because of the large space of combinatorial text actions, learning a policy network that generates an action word by word with reinforcement learning is challenging. Recent research works show that imitation learning provides an effective way of training a generation-based policy network. However, trained agents with imitation learning are hard to master a wide spectrum of task types or skills, and it is also difficult for them to generalize to new environments. In this paper, we propose a meta reinforcement learning based method to train text agents through learning-to-explore. In particular, the text agent first explores the environment to gather task-specific information and then adapts the execution policy for solving the task with this information. On the publicly available testbed ALFWorld, we conducted a comparison study with imitation learning and show the superiority of our method.

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Soft Layer Selection with Meta-Learning for Zero-Shot Cross-Lingual Transfer
Weijia Xu | Batool Haider | Jason Krone | Saab Mansour

Multilingual pre-trained contextual embedding models (Devlin et al., 2019) have achieved impressive performance on zero-shot cross-lingual transfer tasks. Finding the most effective fine-tuning strategy to fine-tune these models on high-resource languages so that it transfers well to the zero-shot languages is a non-trivial task. In this paper, we propose a novel meta-optimizer to soft-select which layers of the pre-trained model to freeze during fine-tuning. We train the meta-optimizer by simulating the zero-shot transfer scenario. Results on cross-lingual natural language inference show that our approach improves over the simple fine-tuning baseline and X-MAML (Nooralahzadeh et al., 2020).

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Zero-Shot Compositional Concept Learning
Guangyue Xu | Parisa Kordjamshidi | Joyce Chai

In this paper, we study the problem of recognizing compositional attribute-object concepts within the zero-shot learning (ZSL) framework. We propose an episode-based cross-attention (EpiCA) network which combines merits of cross-attention mechanism and episode-based training strategy to recognize novel compositional concepts. Firstly, EpiCA bases on cross-attention to correlate conceptvisual information and utilizes the gated pooling layer to build contextualized representations for both images and concepts. The updated representations are used for a more indepth multi-modal relevance calculation for concept recognition. Secondly, a two-phase episode training strategy, especially the ransductive phase, is adopted to utilize unlabeled test examples to alleviate the low-resource learning problem. Experiments on two widelyused zero-shot compositional learning (ZSCL) benchmarks have demonstrated the effectiveness of the model compared with recent approaches on both conventional and generalized ZSCL settings.

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Multi-Pair Text Style Transfer for Unbalanced Data via Task-Adaptive Meta-Learning
Xing Han | Jessica Lundin

Text-style transfer aims to convert text given in one domain into another by paraphrasing the sentence or substituting the keywords without altering the content. By necessity, state-of-the-art methods have evolved to accommodate nonparallel training data, as it is frequently the case there are multiple data sources of unequal size, with a mixture of labeled and unlabeled sentences. Moreover, the inherent style defined within each source might be distinct. A generic bidirectional (e.g., formal ⇔ informal) style transfer regardless of different groups may not generalize well to different applications. In this work, we developed a task adaptive meta-learning framework that can simultaneously perform a multi-pair text-style transfer using a single model. The proposed method can adaptively balance the difference of meta-knowledge across multiple tasks. Results show that our method leads to better quantitative performance as well as coherent style variations. Common challenges of unbalanced data and mismatched domains are handled well by this method.

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On the cross-lingual transferability of multilingual prototypical models across NLU tasks
Oralie Cattan | Sophie Rosset | Christophe Servan

Supervised deep learning-based approaches have been applied to task-oriented dialog and have proven to be effective for limited domain and language applications when a sufficient number of training examples are available. In practice, these approaches suffer from the drawbacks of domain-driven design and under-resourced languages. Domain and language models are supposed to grow and change as the problem space evolves. On one hand, research on transfer learning has demonstrated the cross-lingual ability of multilingual Transformers-based models to learn semantically rich representations. On the other, in addition to the above approaches, meta-learning have enabled the development of task and language learning algorithms capable of far generalization. Through this context, this article proposes to investigate the cross-lingual transferability of using synergistically few-shot learning with prototypical neural networks and multilingual Transformers-based models. Experiments in natural language understanding tasks on MultiATIS++ corpus shows that our approach substantially improves the observed transfer learning performances between the low and the high resource languages. More generally our approach confirms that the meaningful latent space learned in a given language can be can be generalized to unseen and under-resourced ones using meta-learning.

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Meta-Learning for Few-Shot Named Entity Recognition
Cyprien de Lichy | Hadrien Glaude | William Campbell

Meta-learning has recently been proposed to learn models and algorithms that can generalize from a handful of examples. However, applications to structured prediction and textual tasks pose challenges for meta-learning algorithms. In this paper, we apply two meta-learning algorithms, Prototypical Networks and Reptile, to few-shot Named Entity Recognition (NER), including a method for incorporating language model pre-training and Conditional Random Fields (CRF). We propose a task generation scheme for converting classical NER datasets into the few-shot setting, for both training and evaluation. Using three public datasets, we show these meta-learning algorithms outperform a reasonable fine-tuned BERT baseline. In addition, we propose a novel combination of Prototypical Networks and Reptile.

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Multi-accent Speech Separation with One Shot Learning
Kuan Po Huang | Yuan-Kuei Wu | Hung-yi Lee

Speech separation is a problem in the field of speech processing that has been studied in full swing recently. However, there has not been much work studying a multi-accent speech separation scenario. Unseen speakers with new accents and noise aroused the domain mismatch problem which cannot be easily solved by conventional joint training methods. Thus, we applied MAML and FOMAML to tackle this problem and obtained higher average Si-SNRi values than joint training on almost all the unseen accents. This proved that these two methods do have the ability to generate well-trained parameters for adapting to speech mixtures of new speakers and accents. Furthermore, we found out that FOMAML obtains similar performance compared to MAML while saving a lot of time.

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Semi-supervised Meta-learning for Cross-domain Few-shot Intent Classification
Yue Li | Jiong Zhang

Meta learning aims to optimize the model’s capability to generalize to new tasks and domains. Lacking a data-efficient way to create meta training tasks has prevented the application of meta-learning to the real-world few shot learning scenarios. Recent studies have proposed unsupervised approaches to create meta-training tasks from unlabeled data for free, e.g., the SMLMT method (Bansal et al., 2020a) constructs unsupervised multi-class classification tasks from the unlabeled text by randomly masking words in the sentence and let the meta learner choose which word to fill in the blank. This study proposes a semi-supervised meta-learning approach that incorporates both the representation power of large pre-trained language models and the generalization capability of prototypical networks enhanced by SMLMT. The semi-supervised meta training approach avoids overfitting prototypical networks on a small number of labeled training examples and quickly learns cross-domain task-specific representation only from a few supporting examples. By incorporating SMLMT with prototypical networks, the meta learner generalizes better to unseen domains and gains higher accuracy on out-of-scope examples without the heavy lifting of pre-training. We observe significant improvement in few-shot generalization after training only a few epochs on the intent classification tasks evaluated in a multi-domain setting.

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Meta-learning for Classifying Previously Unseen Data Source into Previously Unseen Emotional Categories
Gaël Guibon | Matthieu Labeau | Hélène Flamein | Luce Lefeuvre | Chloé Clavel

In this paper, we place ourselves in a classification scenario in which the target classes and data type are not accessible during training. We use a meta-learning approach to determine whether or not meta-trained information from common social network data with fine-grained emotion labels can achieve competitive performance on messages labeled with different emotion categories. We leverage few-shot learning to match with the classification scenario and consider metric learning based meta-learning by setting up Prototypical Networks with a Transformer encoder, trained in an episodic fashion. This approach proves to be effective for capturing meta-information from a source emotional tag set to predict previously unseen emotional tags. Even though shifting the data type triggers an expected performance drop, our meta-learning approach achieves decent results when compared to the fully supervised one.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Multilingual Representation Learning

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Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Multilingual Representation Learning
Duygu Ataman | Alexandra Birch | Alexis Conneau | Orhan Firat | Sebastian Ruder | Gozde Gul Sahin

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Language Models are Few-shot Multilingual Learners
Genta Indra Winata | Andrea Madotto | Zhaojiang Lin | Rosanne Liu | Jason Yosinski | Pascale Fung

General-purpose language models have demonstrated impressive capabilities, performing on par with state-of-the-art approaches on a range of downstream natural language processing (NLP) tasks and benchmarks when inferring instructions from very few examples. Here, we evaluate the multilingual skills of the GPT and T5 models in conducting multi-class classification on non-English languages without any parameter updates. We show that, given a few English examples as context, pre-trained language models can predict not only English test samples but also non-English ones. Finally, we find the in-context few-shot cross-lingual prediction results of language models are significantly better than random prediction, and they are competitive compared to the existing state-of-the-art cross-lingual models and translation models.

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Learning Contextualised Cross-lingual Word Embeddings and Alignments for Extremely Low-Resource Languages Using Parallel Corpora
Takashi Wada | Tomoharu Iwata | Yuji Matsumoto | Timothy Baldwin | Jey Han Lau

We propose a new approach for learning contextualised cross-lingual word embeddings based on a small parallel corpus (e.g. a few hundred sentence pairs). Our method obtains word embeddings via an LSTM encoder-decoder model that simultaneously translates and reconstructs an input sentence. Through sharing model parameters among different languages, our model jointly trains the word embeddings in a common cross-lingual space. We also propose to combine word and subword embeddings to make use of orthographic similarities across different languages. We base our experiments on real-world data from endangered languages, namely Yongning Na, Shipibo-Konibo, and Griko. Our experiments on bilingual lexicon induction and word alignment tasks show that our model outperforms existing methods by a large margin for most language pairs. These results demonstrate that, contrary to common belief, an encoder-decoder translation model is beneficial for learning cross-lingual representations even in extremely low-resource conditions. Furthermore, our model also works well on high-resource conditions, achieving state-of-the-art performance on a German-English word-alignment task.

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Clustering Monolingual Vocabularies to Improve Cross-Lingual Generalization
Riccardo Bassani | Anders Søgaard | Tejaswini Deoskar

Multilingual language models exhibit better performance for some languages than for others (Singh et al., 2019), and many languages do not seem to benefit from multilingual sharing at all, presumably as a result of poor multilingual segmentation (Pyysal o et al., 2020). This work explores the idea of learning multilingual language models based on clustering of monolingual segments. We show significant improvements over standard multilingual segmentation and training across nine languages on a question answering task, both in a small model regime and for a model of the size of BERT-base.

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Do not neglect related languages: The case of low-resource Occitan cross-lingual word embeddings
Lisa Woller | Viktor Hangya | Alexander Fraser

Cross-lingual word embeddings (CLWEs) have proven indispensable for various natural language processing tasks, e.g., bilingual lexicon induction (BLI). However, the lack of data often impairs the quality of representations. Various approaches requiring only weak cross-lingual supervision were proposed, but current methods still fail to learn good CLWEs for languages with only a small monolingual corpus. We therefore claim that it is necessary to explore further datasets to improve CLWEs in low-resource setups. In this paper we propose to incorporate data of related high-resource languages. In contrast to previous approaches which leverage independently pre-trained embeddings of languages, we (i) train CLWEs for the low-resource and a related language jointly and (ii) map them to the target language to build the final multilingual space. In our experiments we focus on Occitan, a low-resource Romance language which is often neglected due to lack of resources. We leverage data from French, Spanish and Catalan for training and evaluate on the Occitan-English BLI task. By incorporating supporting languages our method outperforms previous approaches by a large margin. Furthermore, our analysis shows that the degree of relatedness between an incorporated language and the low-resource language is critically important.

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Specializing Multilingual Language Models: An Empirical Study
Ethan C. Chau | Noah A. Smith

Pretrained multilingual language models have become a common tool in transferring NLP capabilities to low-resource languages, often with adaptations. In this work, we study the performance, extensibility, and interaction of two such adaptations: vocabulary augmentation and script transliteration. Our evaluations on part-of-speech tagging, universal dependency parsing, and named entity recognition in nine diverse low-resource languages uphold the viability of these approaches while raising new questions around how to optimally adapt multilingual models to low-resource settings.

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Learning Cross-lingual Representations for Event Coreference Resolution with Multi-view Alignment and Optimal Transport
Duy Phung | Hieu Minh Tran | Minh Van Nguyen | Thien Huu Nguyen

We study a new problem of cross-lingual transfer learning for event coreference resolution (ECR) where models trained on data from a source language are adapted for evaluations in different target languages. We introduce the first baseline model for this task based on XLM-RoBERTa, a state-of-the-art multilingual pre-trained language model. We also explore language adversarial neural networks (LANN) that present language discriminators to distinguish texts from the source and target languages to improve the language generalization for ECR. In addition, we introduce two novel mechanisms to further enhance the general representation learning of LANN, featuring: (i) multi-view alignment to penalize cross coreference-label alignment of examples in the source and target languages, and (ii) optimal transport to select close examples in the source and target languages to provide better training signals for the language discriminators. Finally, we perform extensive experiments for cross-lingual ECR from English to Spanish and Chinese to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed methods.

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Multilingual and Multilabel Emotion Recognition using Virtual Adversarial Training
Vikram Gupta

Virtual Adversarial Training (VAT) has been effective in learning robust models under supervised and semi-supervised settings for both computer vision and NLP tasks. However, the efficacy of VAT for multilingual and multilabel emotion recognition has not been explored before. In this work, we explore VAT for multilabel emotion recognition with a focus on leveraging unlabelled data from different languages to improve the model performance. We perform extensive semi-supervised experiments on SemEval2018 multilabel and multilingual emotion recognition dataset and show performance gains of 6.2% (Arabic), 3.8% (Spanish) and 1.8% (English) over supervised learning with same amount of labelled data (10% of training data). We also improve the existing state-of-the-art by 7%, 4.5% and 1% (Jaccard Index) for Spanish, Arabic and English respectively and perform probing experiments for understanding the impact of different layers of the contextual models.

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Analyzing the Effects of Reasoning Types on Cross-Lingual Transfer Performance
Karthikeyan K | Aalok Sathe | Somak Aditya | Monojit Choudhury

Multilingual language models achieve impressive zero-shot accuracies in many languages in complex tasks such as Natural Language Inference (NLI). Examples in NLI (and equivalent complex tasks) often pertain to various types of sub-tasks, requiring different kinds of reasoning. Certain types of reasoning have proven to be more difficult to learn in a monolingual context, and in the crosslingual context, similar observations may shed light on zero-shot transfer efficiency and few-shot sample selection. Hence, to investigate the effects of types of reasoning on transfer performance, we propose a category-annotated multilingual NLI dataset and discuss the challenges to scale monolingual annotations to multiple languages. We statistically observe interesting effects that the confluence of reasoning types and language similarities have on transfer performance.

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Identifying the Importance of Content Overlap for Better Cross-lingual Embedding Mappings
Réka Cserháti | Gábor Berend

In this work, we analyze the performance and properties of cross-lingual word embedding models created by mapping-based alignment methods. We use several measures of corpus and embedding similarity to predict BLI scores of cross-lingual embedding mappings over three types of corpora, three embedding methods and 55 language pairs. Our experimental results corroborate that instead of mere size, the amount of common content in the training corpora is essential. This phenomenon manifests in that i) despite of the smaller corpus sizes, using only the comparable parts of Wikipedia for training the monolingual embedding spaces to be mapped is often more efficient than relying on all the contents of Wikipedia, ii) the smaller, in return less diversified Spanish Wikipedia works almost always much better as a training corpus for bilingual mappings than the ubiquitously used English Wikipedia.

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On the Cross-lingual Transferability of Contextualized Sense Embeddings
Kiamehr Rezaee | Daniel Loureiro | Jose Camacho-Collados | Mohammad Taher Pilehvar

In this paper we analyze the extent to which contextualized sense embeddings, i.e., sense embeddings that are computed based on contextualized word embeddings, are transferable across languages. To this end, we compiled a unified cross-lingual benchmark for Word Sense Disambiguation. We then propose two simple strategies to transfer sense-specific knowledge across languages and test them on the benchmark. Experimental results show that this contextualized knowledge can be effectively transferred to similar languages through pre-trained multilingual language models, to the extent that they can out-perform monolingual representations learnednfrom existing language-specific data.

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Small Data? No Problem! Exploring the Viability of Pretrained Multilingual Language Models for Low-resourced Languages
Kelechi Ogueji | Yuxin Zhu | Jimmy Lin

Pretrained multilingual language models have been shown to work well on many languages for a variety of downstream NLP tasks. However, these models are known to require a lot of training data. This consequently leaves out a huge percentage of the world’s languages as they are under-resourced. Furthermore, a major motivation behind these models is that lower-resource languages benefit from joint training with higher-resource languages. In this work, we challenge this assumption and present the first attempt at training a multilingual language model on only low-resource languages. We show that it is possible to train competitive multilingual language models on less than 1 GB of text. Our model, named AfriBERTa, covers 11 African languages, including the first language model for 4 of these languages. Evaluations on named entity recognition and text classification spanning 10 languages show that our model outperforms mBERT and XLM-Rin several languages and is very competitive overall. Results suggest that our “small data” approach based on similar languages may sometimes work better than joint training on large datasets with high-resource languages. Code, data and models are released at https://github.com/keleog/afriberta.

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Mr. TyDi: A Multi-lingual Benchmark for Dense Retrieval
Xinyu Zhang | Xueguang Ma | Peng Shi | Jimmy Lin

We present Mr. TyDi, a multi-lingual benchmark dataset for mono-lingual retrieval in eleven typologically diverse languages, designed to evaluate ranking with learned dense representations. The goal of this resource is to spur research in dense retrieval techniques in non-English languages, motivated by recent observations that existing techniques for representation learning perform poorly when applied to out-of-distribution data. As a starting point, we provide zero-shot baselines for this new dataset based on a multi-lingual adaptation of DPR that we call “mDPR”. Experiments show that although the effectiveness of mDPR is much lower than BM25, dense representations nevertheless appear to provide valuable relevance signals, improving BM25 results in sparse–dense hybrids. In addition to analyses of our results, we also discuss future challenges and present a research agenda in multi-lingual dense retrieval. Mr. TyDi can be downloaded at https://github.com/castorini/mr.tydi.

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VisualSem: a high-quality knowledge graph for vision and language
Houda Alberts | Ningyuan Huang | Yash Deshpande | Yibo Liu | Kyunghyun Cho | Clara Vania | Iacer Calixto

An exciting frontier in natural language understanding (NLU) and generation (NLG) calls for (vision-and-) language models that can efficiently access external structured knowledge repositories. However, many existing knowledge bases only cover limited domains, or suffer from noisy data, and most of all are typically hard to integrate into neural language pipelines. To fill this gap, we release VisualSem: a high-quality knowledge graph (KG) which includes nodes with multilingual glosses, multiple illustrative images, and visually relevant relations. We also release a neural multi-modal retrieval model that can use images or sentences as inputs and retrieves entities in the KG. This multi-modal retrieval model can be integrated into any (neural network) model pipeline. We encourage the research community to use VisualSem for data augmentation and/or as a source of grounding, among other possible uses. VisualSem as well as the multi-modal retrieval models are publicly available and can be downloaded in this URL: https://github.com/iacercalixto/visualsem.

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Vyākarana: A Colorless Green Benchmark for Syntactic Evaluation in Indic Languages
Rajaswa Patil | Jasleen Dhillon | Siddhant Mahurkar | Saumitra Kulkarni | Manav Malhotra | Veeky Baths

While there has been significant progress towards developing NLU resources for Indic languages, syntactic evaluation has been relatively less explored. Unlike English, Indic languages have rich morphosyntax, grammatical genders, free linear word-order, and highly inflectional morphology. In this paper, we introduce Vyākarana: a benchmark of Colorless Green sentences in Indic languages for syntactic evaluation of multilingual language models. The benchmark comprises four syntax-related tasks: PoS Tagging, Syntax Tree-depth Prediction, Grammatical Case Marking, and Subject-Verb Agreement. We use the datasets from the evaluation tasks to probe five multilingual language models of varying architectures for syntax in Indic languages. Due to its prevalence, we also include a code-switching setting in our experiments. Our results show that the token-level and sentence-level representations from the Indic language models (IndicBERT and MuRIL) do not capture the syntax in Indic languages as efficiently as the other highly multilingual language models. Further, our layer-wise probing experiments reveal that while mBERT, DistilmBERT, and XLM-R localize the syntax in middle layers, the Indic language models do not show such syntactic localization.

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Improving the Diversity of Unsupervised Paraphrasing with Embedding Outputs
Monisha Jegadeesan | Sachin Kumar | John Wieting | Yulia Tsvetkov

We present a novel technique for zero-shot paraphrase generation. The key contribution is an end-to-end multilingual paraphrasing model that is trained using translated parallel corpora to generate paraphrases into “meaning spaces” – replacing the final softmax layer with word embeddings. This architectural modification, plus a training procedure that incorporates an autoencoding objective, enables effective parameter sharing across languages for more fluent monolingual rewriting, and facilitates fluency and diversity in the generated outputs. Our continuous-output paraphrase generation models outperform zero-shot paraphrasing baselines when evaluated on two languages using a battery of computational metrics as well as in human assessment.

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The Effectiveness of Intermediate-Task Training for Code-Switched Natural Language Understanding
Archiki Prasad | Mohammad Ali Rehan | Shreya Pathak | Preethi Jyothi

While recent benchmarks have spurred a lot of new work on improving the generalization of pretrained multilingual language models on multilingual tasks, techniques to improve code-switched natural language understanding tasks have been far less explored. In this work, we propose the use of bilingual intermediate pretraining as a reliable technique to derive large and consistent performance gains using code-switched text on three different NLP tasks: Natural Language Inference (NLI), Question Answering (QA) and Sentiment Analysis (SA). We show consistent performance gains on four different code-switched language-pairs (Hindi-English, Spanish-English, Tamil-English and Malayalam-English) for SA and on Hindi-English for NLI and QA. We also present a code-switched masked language modeling (MLM) pretraining technique that consistently benefits SA compared to standard MLM pretraining using real code-switched text.

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Shaking Syntactic Trees on the Sesame Street: Multilingual Probing with Controllable Perturbations
Ekaterina Taktasheva | Vladislav Mikhailov | Ekaterina Artemova

Recent research has adopted a new experimental field centered around the concept of text perturbations which has revealed that shuffled word order has little to no impact on the downstream performance of Transformer-based language models across many NLP tasks. These findings contradict the common understanding of how the models encode hierarchical and structural information and even question if the word order is modeled with position embeddings. To this end, this paper proposes nine probing datasets organized by the type of controllable text perturbation for three Indo-European languages with a varying degree of word order flexibility: English, Swedish and Russian. Based on the probing analysis of the M-BERT and M-BART models, we report that the syntactic sensitivity depends on the language and model pre-training objectives. We also find that the sensitivity grows across layers together with the increase of the perturbation granularity. Last but not least, we show that the models barely use the positional information to induce syntactic trees from their intermediate self-attention and contextualized representations.

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Multilingual Code-Switching for Zero-Shot Cross-Lingual Intent Prediction and Slot Filling
Jitin Krishnan | Antonios Anastasopoulos | Hemant Purohit | Huzefa Rangwala

Predicting user intent and detecting the corresponding slots from text are two key problems in Natural Language Understanding (NLU). Since annotated datasets are only available for a handful of languages, our work focuses particularly on a zero-shot scenario where the target language is unseen during training. In the context of zero-shot learning, this task is typically approached using representations from pre-trained multilingual language models such as mBERT or by fine-tuning on data automatically translated into the target language. We propose a novel method which augments monolingual source data using multilingual code-switching via random translations, to enhance generalizability of large multilingual language models when fine-tuning them for downstream tasks. Experiments on the MultiATIS++ benchmark show that our method leads to an average improvement of +4.2% in accuracy for the intent task and +1.8% in F1 for the slot-filling task over the state-of-the-art across 8 typologically diverse languages. We also study the impact of code-switching into different families of languages on downstream performance. Furthermore, we present an application of our method for crisis informatics using a new human-annotated tweet dataset of slot filling in English and Haitian Creole, collected during the Haiti earthquake.

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Analysis of Zero-Shot Crosslingual Learning between English and Korean for Named Entity Recognition
Jongin Kim | Nayoung Choi | Seunghyun Lim | Jungwhan Kim | Soojin Chung | Hyunsoo Woo | Min Song | Jinho D. Choi

This paper presents a English-Korean parallel dataset that collects 381K news articles where 1,400 of them, comprising 10K sentences, are manually labeled for crosslingual named entity recognition (NER). The annotation guidelines for the two languages are developed in parallel, that yield the inter-annotator agreement scores of 91 and 88% for English and Korean respectively, indicating sublime quality annotation in our dataset. Three types of crosslingual learning approaches, direct model transfer, embedding projection, and annotation projection, are used to develop zero-shot Korean NER models. Our best model gives the F1-score of 51% that is very encouraging, considering the extremely distinct natures of these two languages. This is pioneering work that explores zero-shot cross-lingual learning between English and Korean and provides rich parallel annotation for a core NLP task such as named entity recognition.

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Regularising Fisher Information Improves Cross-lingual Generalisation
Asa Cooper Stickland | Iain Murray

Many recent works use ‘consistency regularisation’ to improve the generalisation of fine-tuned pre-trained models, both multilingual and English-only. These works encourage model outputs to be similar between a perturbed and normal version of the input, usually via penalising the Kullback–Leibler (KL) divergence between the probability distribution of the perturbed and normal model. We believe that consistency losses may be implicitly regularizing the loss landscape. In particular, we build on work hypothesising that implicitly or explicitly regularizing trace of the Fisher Information Matrix (FIM), amplifies the implicit bias of SGD to avoid memorization. Our initial results show both empirically and theoretically that consistency losses are related to the FIM, and show that the flat minima implied by a small trace of the FIM improves performance when fine-tuning a multilingual model on additional languages. We aim to confirm these initial results on more datasets, and use our insights to develop better multilingual fine-tuning techniques.

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[RETRACTED] DMix: Distance Constrained Interpolative Mixup
Ramit Sawhney | Megh Thakkar | Shrey Pandit | Debdoot Mukherjee | Lucie Flek

Interpolation-based regularisation methods have proven to be effective for various tasks and modalities. Mixup is a data augmentation method that generates virtual training samples from convex combinations of individual inputs and labels. We extend Mixup and propose DMix, distance-constrained interpolative Mixup for sentence classification leveraging the hyperbolic space. DMix achieves state-of-the-art results on sentence classification over existing data augmentation methods across datasets in four languages.

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[RETRACTED] Sequence Mixup for Zero-Shot Cross-Lingual Part-Of-Speech Tagging
Megh Thakkar | Vishwa Shah | Ramit Sawhney | Debdoot Mukherjee

There have been efforts in cross-lingual transfer learning for various tasks. We present an approach utilizing an interpolative data augmentation method, Mixup, to improve the generalizability of models for part-of-speech tagging trained on a source language, improving its performance on unseen target languages. Through experiments on ten languages with diverse structures and language roots, we put forward its applicability for downstream zero-shot cross-lingual tasks.

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Well-Defined Morphology is Sentence-Level Morphology
Omer Goldman | Reut Tsarfaty

Morphological tasks have gained decent popularity within the NLP community in the recent years, with large multi-lingual datasets providing morphological analysis of words, either in or out of context. However, the lack of a clear linguistic definition for words destines the annotative work to be incomplete and mired in inconsistencies, especially cross-linguistically. In this work we expand morphological inflection of words to inflection of sentences to provide true universality disconnected from orthographic traditions of white-space usage. To allow annotation for sentence-inflection we define a morphological annotation scheme by a fixed set of inflectional features. We present a small cross-linguistic dataset including semi-manually generated simple sentences in 4 typologically diverse languages annotated according to our suggested scheme, and show that the task of reinflection gets substantially more difficult but that the change of scope from words to well-defined sentences allows interface with contextualized language models.

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Cross-Lingual Training of Dense Retrievers for Document Retrieval
Peng Shi | Rui Zhang | He Bai | Jimmy Lin

Dense retrieval has shown great success for passage ranking in English. However, its effectiveness for non-English languages remains unexplored due to limitation in training resources. In this work, we explore different transfer techniques for document ranking from English annotations to non-English languages. Our experiments reveal that zero-shot model-based transfer using mBERT improves search quality. We find that weakly-supervised target language transfer is competitive compared to generation-based target language transfer, which requires translation models.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Machine Reading for Question Answering

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Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Machine Reading for Question Answering
Adam Fisch | Alon Talmor | Danqi Chen | Eunsol Choi | Minjoon Seo | Patrick Lewis | Robin Jia | Sewon Min

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MFAQ: a Multilingual FAQ Dataset
Maxime De Bruyn | Ehsan Lotfi | Jeska Buhmann | Walter Daelemans

In this paper, we present the first multilingual FAQ dataset publicly available. We collected around 6M FAQ pairs from the web, in 21 different languages. Although this is significantly larger than existing FAQ retrieval datasets, it comes with its own challenges: duplication of content and uneven distribution of topics. We adopt a similar setup as Dense Passage Retrieval (DPR) and test various bi-encoders on this dataset. Our experiments reveal that a multilingual model based on XLM-RoBERTa achieves the best results, except for English. Lower resources languages seem to learn from one another as a multilingual model achieves a higher MRR than language-specific ones. Our qualitative analysis reveals the brittleness of the model on simple word changes. We publicly release our dataset, model, and training script.

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Rethinking the Objectives of Extractive Question Answering
Martin Fajcik | Josef Jon | Pavel Smrz

This work demonstrates that using the objective with independence assumption for modelling the span probability P (a_s , a_e ) = P (a_s )P (a_e) of span starting at position a_s and ending at position a_e has adverse effects. Therefore we propose multiple approaches to modelling joint probability P (a_s , a_e) directly. Among those, we propose a compound objective, composed from the joint probability while still keeping the objective with independence assumption as an auxiliary objective. We find that the compound objective is consistently superior or equal to other assumptions in exact match. Additionally, we identified common errors caused by the assumption of independence and manually checked the counterpart predictions, demonstrating the impact of the compound objective on the real examples. Our findings are supported via experiments with three extractive QA models (BIDAF, BERT, ALBERT) over six datasets and our code, individual results and manual analysis are available online.

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What Would it Take to get Biomedical QA Systems into Practice?
Gregory Kell | Iain Marshall | Byron Wallace | Andre Jaun

Medical question answering (QA) systems have the potential to answer clinicians’ uncertainties about treatment and diagnosis on-demand, informed by the latest evidence. However, despite the significant progress in general QA made by the NLP community, medical QA systems are still not widely used in clinical environments. One likely reason for this is that clinicians may not readily trust QA system outputs, in part because transparency, trustworthiness, and provenance have not been key considerations in the design of such models. In this paper we discuss a set of criteria that, if met, we argue would likely increase the utility of biomedical QA systems, which may in turn lead to adoption of such systems in practice. We assess existing models, tasks, and datasets with respect to these criteria, highlighting shortcomings of previously proposed approaches and pointing toward what might be more usable QA systems.

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GermanQuAD and GermanDPR: Improving Non-English Question Answering and Passage Retrieval
Timo Möller | Julian Risch | Malte Pietsch

A major challenge of research on non-English machine reading for question answering (QA) is the lack of annotated datasets. In this paper, we present GermanQuAD, a dataset of 13,722 extractive question/answer pairs. To improve the reproducibility of the dataset creation approach and foster QA research on other languages, we summarize lessons learned and evaluate reformulation of question/answer pairs as a way to speed up the annotation process. An extractive QA model trained on GermanQuAD significantly outperforms multilingual models and also shows that machine-translated training data cannot fully substitute hand-annotated training data in the target language. Finally, we demonstrate the wide range of applications of GermanQuAD by adapting it to GermanDPR, a training dataset for dense passage retrieval (DPR), and train and evaluate one of the first non-English DPR models.

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Zero-Shot Clinical Questionnaire Filling From Human-Machine Interactions
Farnaz Ghassemi Toudeshki | Philippe Jolivet | Alexandre Durand-Salmon | Anna Liednikova

In clinical studies, chatbots mimicking doctor-patient interactions are used for collecting information about the patient’s health state. Later, this information needs to be processed and structured for the doctor. One way to organize it is by automatically filling the questionnaires from the human-bot conversation. It would help the doctor to spot the possible issues. Since there is no such dataset available for this task and its collection is costly and sensitive, we explore the capacities of state-of-the-art zero-shot models for question answering, textual inference, and text classification. We provide a detailed analysis of the results and propose further directions for clinical questionnaire filling.

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Can Question Generation Debias Question Answering Models? A Case Study on Question–Context Lexical Overlap
Kazutoshi Shinoda | Saku Sugawara | Akiko Aizawa

Question answering (QA) models for reading comprehension have been demonstrated to exploit unintended dataset biases such as question–context lexical overlap. This hinders QA models from generalizing to under-represented samples such as questions with low lexical overlap. Question generation (QG), a method for augmenting QA datasets, can be a solution for such performance degradation if QG can properly debias QA datasets. However, we discover that recent neural QG models are biased towards generating questions with high lexical overlap, which can amplify the dataset bias. Moreover, our analysis reveals that data augmentation with these QG models frequently impairs the performance on questions with low lexical overlap, while improving that on questions with high lexical overlap. To address this problem, we use a synonym replacement-based approach to augment questions with low lexical overlap. We demonstrate that the proposed data augmentation approach is simple yet effective to mitigate the degradation problem with only 70k synthetic examples.

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What Can a Generative Language Model Answer About a Passage?
Douglas Summers-Stay | Claire Bonial | Clare Voss

Generative language models trained on large, diverse corpora can answer questions about a passage by generating the most likely continuation of the passage followed by a question/answer pair. However, accuracy rates vary depending on the type of question asked. In this paper we keep the passage fixed, and test with a wide variety of question types, exploring the strengths and weaknesses of the GPT-3 language model. We provide the passage and test questions as a challenge set for other language models.

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Multi-modal Retrieval of Tables and Texts Using Tri-encoder Models
Bogdan Kostić | Julian Risch | Timo Möller

Open-domain extractive question answering works well on textual data by first retrieving candidate texts and then extracting the answer from those candidates. However, some questions cannot be answered by text alone but require information stored in tables. In this paper, we present an approach for retrieving both texts and tables relevant to a question by jointly encoding texts, tables and questions into a single vector space. To this end, we create a new multi-modal dataset based on text and table datasets from related work and compare the retrieval performance of different encoding schemata. We find that dense vector embeddings of transformer models outperform sparse embeddings on four out of six evaluation datasets. Comparing different dense embedding models, tri-encoders with one encoder for each question, text and table increase retrieval performance compared to bi-encoders with one encoder for the question and one for both text and tables. We release the newly created multi-modal dataset to the community so that it can be used for training and evaluation.

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Eliciting Bias in Question Answering Models through Ambiguity
Andrew Mao | Naveen Raman | Matthew Shu | Eric Li | Franklin Yang | Jordan Boyd-Graber

Question answering (QA) models use retriever and reader systems to answer questions. Reliance on training data by QA systems can amplify or reflect inequity through their responses. Many QA models, such as those for the SQuAD dataset, are trained and tested on a subset of Wikipedia articles which encode their own biases and also reproduce real-world inequality. Understanding how training data affects bias in QA systems can inform methods to mitigate inequity. We develop two sets of questions for closed and open domain questions respectively, which use ambiguous questions to probe QA models for bias. We feed three deep-learning-based QA systems with our question sets and evaluate responses for bias via the metrics. Using our metrics, we find that open-domain QA models amplify biases more than their closed-domain counterparts and propose that biases in the retriever surface more readily due to greater freedom of choice.

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Bilingual Alignment Pre-Training for Zero-Shot Cross-Lingual Transfer
Ziqing Yang | Wentao Ma | Yiming Cui | Jiani Ye | Wanxiang Che | Shijin Wang

Multilingual pre-trained models have achieved remarkable performance on cross-lingual transfer learning. Some multilingual models such as mBERT, have been pre-trained on unlabeled corpora, therefore the embeddings of different languages in the models may not be aligned very well. In this paper, we aim to improve the zero-shot cross-lingual transfer performance by proposing a pre-training task named Word-Exchange Aligning Model (WEAM), which uses the statistical alignment information as the prior knowledge to guide cross-lingual word prediction. We evaluate our model on multilingual machine reading comprehension task MLQA and natural language interface task XNLI. The results show that WEAM can significantly improve the zero-shot performance.

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ParaShoot: A Hebrew Question Answering Dataset
Omri Keren | Omer Levy

NLP research in Hebrew has largely focused on morphology and syntax, where rich annotated datasets in the spirit of Universal Dependencies are available. Semantic datasets, however, are in short supply, hindering crucial advances in the development of NLP technology in Hebrew. In this work, we present ParaShoot, the first question answering dataset in modern Hebrew. The dataset follows the format and crowdsourcing methodology of SQuAD, and contains approximately 3000 annotated examples, similar to other question-answering datasets in low-resource languages. We provide the first baseline results using recently-released BERT-style models for Hebrew, showing that there is significant room for improvement on this task.

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Unsupervised Multiple Choices Question Answering: Start Learning from Basic Knowledge
Chi-Liang Liu | Hung-yi Lee

In this paper, we study the possibility of unsupervised Multiple Choices Question Answering (MCQA). From very basic knowledge, the MCQA model knows that some choices have higher probabilities of being correct than others. The information, though very noisy, guides the training of an MCQA model. The proposed method is shown to outperform the baseline approaches on RACE and is even comparable with some supervised learning approaches on MC500.

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GANDALF: a General Character Name Description Dataset for Long Fiction
Fredrik Carlsson | Magnus Sahlgren | Fredrik Olsson | Amaru Cuba Gyllensten

This paper introduces a long-range multiple-choice Question Answering (QA) dataset, based on full-length fiction book texts. The questions are formulated as 10-way multiple-choice questions, where the task is to select the correct character name given a character description, or vice-versa. Each character description is formulated in natural text and often contains information from several sections throughout the book. We provide 20,000 questions created from 10,000 manually annotated descriptions of characters from 177 books containing 152,917 words on average. We address the current discourse regarding dataset bias and leakage by a simple anonymization procedure, which in turn enables interesting probing possibilities. Finally, we show that suitable baseline algorithms perform very poorly on this task, with the book size itself making it non-trivial to attempt a Transformer-based QA solution. This leaves ample room for future improvement, and hints at the need for a completely different type of solution.

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Investigating Post-pretraining Representation Alignment for Cross-Lingual Question Answering
Fahim Faisal | Antonios Anastasopoulos

Human knowledge is collectively encoded in the roughly 6500 languages spoken around the world, but it is not distributed equally across languages. Hence, for information-seeking question answering (QA) systems to adequately serve speakers of all languages, they need to operate cross-lingually. In this work we investigate the capabilities of multilingually pretrained language models on cross-lingual QA. We find that explicitly aligning the representations across languages with a post-hoc finetuning step generally leads to improved performance. We additionally investigate the effect of data size as well as the language choice in this fine-tuning step, also releasing a dataset for evaluating cross-lingual QA systems.

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Semantic Answer Similarity for Evaluating Question Answering Models
Julian Risch | Timo Möller | Julian Gutsch | Malte Pietsch

The evaluation of question answering models compares ground-truth annotations with model predictions. However, as of today, this comparison is mostly lexical-based and therefore misses out on answers that have no lexical overlap but are still semantically similar, thus treating correct answers as false. This underestimation of the true performance of models hinders user acceptance in applications and complicates a fair comparison of different models. Therefore, there is a need for an evaluation metric that is based on semantics instead of pure string similarity. In this short paper, we present SAS, a cross-encoder-based metric for the estimation of semantic answer similarity, and compare it to seven existing metrics. To this end, we create an English and a German three-way annotated evaluation dataset containing pairs of answers along with human judgment of their semantic similarity, which we release along with an implementation of the SAS metric and the experiments. We find that semantic similarity metrics based on recent transformer models correlate much better with human judgment than traditional lexical similarity metrics on our two newly created datasets and one dataset from related work.

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Simple and Efficient ways to Improve REALM
Vidhisha Balachandran | Ashish Vaswani | Yulia Tsvetkov | Niki Parmar

Dense retrieval has been shown to be effective for Open Domain Question Answering, surpassing sparse retrieval methods like BM25. One such model, REALM, (Guu et al., 2020) is an end-to-end dense retrieval system that uses MLM based pretraining for improved downstream QA performance. However, the current REALM setup uses limited resources and is not comparable in scale to more recent systems, contributing to its lower performance. Additionally, it relies on noisy supervision for retrieval during fine-tuning. We propose REALM++, where we improve upon the training and inference setups and introduce better supervision signal for improving performance, without any architectural changes. REALM++ achieves ~5.5% absolute accuracy gains over the baseline while being faster to train. It also matches the performance of large models which have 3x more parameters demonstrating the efficiency of our setup.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 17th Workshop on Multiword Expressions (MWE 2021)

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Proceedings of the 17th Workshop on Multiword Expressions (MWE 2021)
Paul Cook | Jelena Mitrović | Carla Parra Escartín | Ashwini Vaidya | Petya Osenova | Shiva Taslimipoor | Carlos Ramisch

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A Long Hard Look at MWEs in the Age of Language Models
Vered Shwartz

In recent years, language models (LMs) have become almost synonymous with NLP. Pre-trained to “read” a large text corpus, such models are useful as both a representation layer as well as a source of world knowledge. But how well do they represent MWEs? This talk will discuss various problems in representing MWEs, and the extent to which LMs address them: • Do LMs capture the implicit relationship between constituents in compositional MWEs (from baby oil through parsley cake to cheeseburger stabbing)? • Do LMs recognize when words are used nonliterally in non-compositional MWEs (e.g. do they know whether there are fleas in the flea market)? • Do LMs know idioms, and can they infer the meaning of new idioms from the context as humans often do?

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Where Do Aspectual Variants of Light Verb Constructions Belong?
Aggeliki Fotopoulou | Eric Laporte | Takuya Nakamura

Expressions with an aspectual variant of a light verb, e.g. ‘take on debt’ vs. ‘have debt’, are frequent in texts but often difficult to classify between verbal idioms, light verb constructions or compositional phrases. We investigate the properties of such expressions with a disputed membership and propose a selection of features that determine more satisfactory boundaries between the three categories in this zone, assigning the expressions to one of them.

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Data-driven Identification of Idioms in Song Lyrics
Miriam Amin | Peter Fankhauser | Marc Kupietz | Roman Schneider

The automatic recognition of idioms poses a challenging problem for NLP applications. Whereas native speakers can intuitively handle multiword expressions whose compositional meanings are hard to trace back to individual word semantics, there is still ample scope for improvement regarding computational approaches. We assume that idiomatic constructions can be characterized by gradual intensities of semantic non-compositionality, formal fixedness, and unusual usage context, and introduce a number of measures for these characteristics, comprising count-based and predictive collocation measures together with measures of context (un)similarity. We evaluate our approach on a manually labelled gold standard, derived from a corpus of German pop lyrics. To this end, we apply a Random Forest classifier to analyze the individual contribution of features for automatically detecting idioms, and study the trade-off between recall and precision. Finally, we evaluate the classifier on an independent dataset of idioms extracted from a list of Wikipedia idioms, achieving state-of-the art accuracy.

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Contextualized Embeddings Encode Monolingual and Cross-lingual Knowledge of Idiomaticity
Samin Fakharian | Paul Cook

Potentially idiomatic expressions (PIEs) are ambiguous between non-compositional idiomatic interpretations and transparent literal interpretations. For example, “hit the road” can have an idiomatic meaning corresponding to ‘start a journey’ or have a literal interpretation. In this paper we propose a supervised model based on contextualized embeddings for predicting whether usages of PIEs are idiomatic or literal. We consider monolingual experiments for English and Russian, and show that the proposed model outperforms previous approaches, including in the case that the model is tested on instances of PIE types that were not observed during training. We then consider cross-lingual experiments in which the model is trained on PIE instances in one language, English or Russian, and tested on the other language. We find that the model outperforms baselines in this setting. These findings suggest that contextualized embeddings are able to learn representations that encode knowledge of idiomaticity that is not restricted to specific expressions, nor to a specific language.

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PIE: A Parallel Idiomatic Expression Corpus for Idiomatic Sentence Generation and Paraphrasing
Jianing Zhou | Hongyu Gong | Suma Bhat

Idiomatic expressions (IE) play an important role in natural language, and have long been a “pain in the neck” for NLP systems. Despite this, text generation tasks related to IEs remain largely under-explored. In this paper, we propose two new tasks of idiomatic sentence generation and paraphrasing to fill this research gap. We introduce a curated dataset of 823 IEs, and a parallel corpus with sentences containing them and the same sentences where the IEs were replaced by their literal paraphrases as the primary resource for our tasks. We benchmark existing deep learning models, which have state-of-the-art performance on related tasks using automated and manual evaluation with our dataset to inspire further research on our proposed tasks. By establishing baseline models, we pave the way for more comprehensive and accurate modeling of IEs, both for generation and paraphrasing.

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Lexical Semantic Recognition
Nelson F. Liu | Daniel Hershcovich | Michael Kranzlein | Nathan Schneider

In lexical semantics, full-sentence segmentation and segment labeling of various phenomena are generally treated separately, despite their interdependence. We hypothesize that a unified lexical semantic recognition task is an effective way to encapsulate previously disparate styles of annotation, including multiword expression identification / classification and supersense tagging. Using the STREUSLE corpus, we train a neural CRF sequence tagger and evaluate its performance along various axes of annotation. As the label set generalizes that of previous tasks (PARSEME, DiMSUM), we additionally evaluate how well the model generalizes to those test sets, finding that it approaches or surpasses existing models despite training only on STREUSLE. Our work also establishes baseline models and evaluation metrics for integrated and accurate modeling of lexical semantics, facilitating future work in this area.

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Finding BERT’s Idiomatic Key
Vasudevan Nedumpozhimana | John Kelleher

Sentence embeddings encode information relating to the usage of idioms in a sentence. This paper reports a set of experiments that combine a probing methodology with input masking to analyse where in a sentence this idiomatic information is taken from, and what form it takes. Our results indicate that BERT’s idiomatic key is primarily found within an idiomatic expression, but also draws on information from the surrounding context. Also, BERT can distinguish between the disruption in a sentence caused by words missing and the incongruity caused by idiomatic usage.

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Light Verb Constructions and Their Families - A Corpus Study on German ‘stehen unter’-LVCs
Jens Fleischhauer

The paper reports on a corpus study of German light verb constructions (LVCs). LVCs come in families which exemplify systematic interpretation patterns. The paper’s aim is to account for the properties determining these patterns on the basis of a corpus study on German LVCs of the type ‘stehen unter’ NP’ (‘stand under NP’).
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Third Workshop on New Frontiers in Summarization

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Proceedings of the Third Workshop on New Frontiers in Summarization
Giuseppe Carenini | Jackie Chi Kit Cheung | Yue Dong | Fei Liu | Lu Wang

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Sentence-level Planning for Especially Abstractive Summarization
Andreas Marfurt | James Henderson

Abstractive summarization models heavily rely on copy mechanisms, such as the pointer network or attention, to achieve good performance, measured by textual overlap with reference summaries. As a result, the generated summaries stay close to the formulations in the source document. We propose the *sentence planner* model to generate more abstractive summaries. It includes a hierarchical decoder that first generates a representation for the next summary sentence, and then conditions the word generator on this representation. Our generated summaries are more abstractive and at the same time achieve high ROUGE scores when compared to human reference summaries. We verify the effectiveness of our design decisions with extensive evaluations.

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Template-aware Attention Model for Earnings Call Report Generation
Yangchen Huang | Prashant K. Dhingra | Seyed Danial Mohseni Taheri

Earning calls are among important resources for investors and analysts for updating their price targets. Firms usually publish corresponding transcripts soon after earnings events. However, raw transcripts are often too long and miss the coherent structure. To enhance the clarity, analysts write well-structured reports for some important earnings call events by analyzing them, requiring time and effort. In this paper, we propose TATSum (Template-Aware aTtention model for Summarization), a generalized neural summarization approach for structured report generation, and evaluate its performance in the earnings call domain. We build a large corpus with thousands of transcripts and reports using historical earnings events. We first generate a candidate set of reports from the corpus as potential soft templates which do not impose actual rules on the output. Then, we employ an encoder model with margin-ranking loss to rank the candidate set and select the best quality template. Finally, the transcript and the selected soft template are used as input in a seq2seq framework for report generation. Empirical results on the earnings call dataset show that our model significantly outperforms state-of-the-art models in terms of informativeness and structure.

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Knowledge and Keywords Augmented Abstractive Sentence Summarization
Shuo Guan

In this paper, we study the abstractive sentence summarization. There are two essential information features that can influence the quality of news summarization, which are topic keywords and the knowledge structure of the news text. Besides, the existing knowledge encoder has poor performance on sparse sentence knowledge structure. Considering these, we propose KAS, a novel Knowledge and Keywords Augmented Abstractive Sentence Summarization framework. Tri-encoders are utilized to integrate contexts of original text, knowledge structure and keywords topic simultaneously, with a special linearized knowledge structure. Automatic and human evaluations demonstrate that KAS achieves the best performances.

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Rewards with Negative Examples for Reinforced Topic-Focused Abstractive Summarization
Khalil Mrini | Can Liu | Markus Dreyer

We consider the problem of topic-focused abstractive summarization, where the goal is to generate an abstractive summary focused on a particular topic, a phrase of one or multiple words. We hypothesize that the task of generating topic-focused summaries can be improved by showing the model what it must not focus on. We introduce a deep reinforcement learning approach to topic-focused abstractive summarization, trained on rewards with a novel negative example baseline. We define the input in this problem as the source text preceded by the topic. We adapt the CNN-Daily Mail and New York Times summarization datasets for this task. We then show through experiments on existing rewards that the use of a negative example baseline can outperform the use of a self-critical baseline, in Rouge, BERTScore, and human evaluation metrics.

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A Novel Wikipedia based Dataset for Monolingual and Cross-Lingual Summarization
Mehwish Fatima | Michael Strube

Cross-lingual summarization is a challenging task for which there are no cross-lingual scientific resources currently available. To overcome the lack of a high-quality resource, we present a new dataset for monolingual and cross-lingual summarization considering the English-German pair. We collect high-quality, real-world cross-lingual data from Spektrum der Wissenschaft, which publishes human-written German scientific summaries of English science articles on various subjects. The generated Spektrum dataset is small; therefore, we harvest a similar dataset from the Wikipedia Science Portal to complement it. The Wikipedia dataset consists of English and German articles, which can be used for monolingual and cross-lingual summarization. Furthermore, we present a quantitative analysis of the datasets and results of empirical experiments with several existing extractive and abstractive summarization models. The results suggest the viability and usefulness of the proposed dataset for monolingual and cross-lingual summarization.

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Evaluation of Summarization Systems across Gender, Age, and Race
Anna Jørgensen | Anders Søgaard

Summarization systems are ultimately evaluated by human annotators and raters. Usually, annotators and raters do not reflect the demographics of end users, but are recruited through student populations or crowdsourcing platforms with skewed demographics. For two different evaluation scenarios – evaluation against gold summaries and system output ratings – we show that summary evaluation is sensitive to protected attributes. This can severely bias system development and evaluation, leading us to build models that cater for some groups rather than others.

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Evaluation of Abstractive Summarisation Models with Machine Translation in Deliberative Processes
Miguel Arana-Catania | Rob Procter | Yulan He | Maria Liakata

We present work on summarising deliberative processes for non-English languages. Unlike commonly studied datasets, such as news articles, this deliberation dataset reflects difficulties of combining multiple narratives, mostly of poor grammatical quality, in a single text. We report an extensive evaluation of a wide range of abstractive summarisation models in combination with an off-the-shelf machine translation model. Texts are translated into English, summarised, and translated back to the original language. We obtain promising results regarding the fluency, consistency and relevance of the summaries produced. Our approach is easy to implement for many languages for production purposes by simply changing the translation model.

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Capturing Speaker Incorrectness: Speaker-Focused Post-Correction for Abstractive Dialogue Summarization
Dongyub Lee | Jungwoo Lim | Taesun Whang | Chanhee Lee | Seungwoo Cho | Mingun Park | Heuiseok Lim

In this paper, we focus on improving the quality of the summary generated by neural abstractive dialogue summarization systems. Even though pre-trained language models generate well-constructed and promising results, it is still challenging to summarize the conversation of multiple participants since the summary should include a description of the overall situation and the actions of each speaker. This paper proposes self-supervised strategies for speaker-focused post-correction in abstractive dialogue summarization. Specifically, our model first discriminates which type of speaker correction is required in a draft summary and then generates a revised summary according to the required type. Experimental results show that our proposed method adequately corrects the draft summaries, and the revised summaries are significantly improved in both quantitative and qualitative evaluations.

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Measuring Similarity of Opinion-bearing Sentences
Wenyi Tay | Xiuzhen Zhang | Stephen Wan | Sarvnaz Karimi

For many NLP applications of online reviews, comparison of two opinion-bearing sentences is key. We argue that, while general purpose text similarity metrics have been applied for this purpose, there has been limited exploration of their applicability to opinion texts. We address this gap in the literature, studying: (1) how humans judge the similarity of pairs of opinion-bearing sentences; and, (2) the degree to which existing text similarity metrics, particularly embedding-based ones, correspond to human judgments. We crowdsourced annotations for opinion sentence pairs and our main findings are: (1) annotators tend to agree on whether or not opinion sentences are similar or different; and (2) embedding-based metrics capture human judgments of “opinion similarity” but not “opinion difference”. Based on our analysis, we identify areas where the current metrics should be improved. We further propose to learn a similarity metric for opinion similarity via fine-tuning the Sentence-BERT sentence-embedding network based on review text and weak supervision by review ratings. Experiments show that our learned metric outperforms existing text similarity metrics and especially show significantly higher correlations with human annotations for differing opinions.

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EASE: Extractive-Abstractive Summarization End-to-End using the Information Bottleneck Principle
Haoran Li | Arash Einolghozati | Srinivasan Iyer | Bhargavi Paranjape | Yashar Mehdad | Sonal Gupta | Marjan Ghazvininejad

Current abstractive summarization systems outperform their extractive counterparts, but their widespread adoption is inhibited by the inherent lack of interpretability. Extractive summarization systems, though interpretable, suffer from redundancy and possible lack of coherence. To achieve the best of both worlds, we propose EASE, an extractive-abstractive framework that generates concise abstractive summaries that can be traced back to an extractive summary. Our framework can be applied to any evidence-based text generation problem and can accommodate various pretrained models in its simple architecture. We use the Information Bottleneck principle to jointly train the extraction and abstraction in an end-to-end fashion. Inspired by previous research that humans use a two-stage framework to summarize long documents (Jing and McKeown, 2000), our framework first extracts a pre-defined amount of evidence spans and then generates a summary using only the evidence. Using automatic and human evaluations, we show that the generated summaries are better than strong extractive and extractive-abstractive baselines.

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Context or No Context? A preliminary exploration of human-in-the-loop approach for Incremental Temporal Summarization in meetings
Nicole Beckage | Shachi H Kumar | Saurav Sahay | Ramesh Manuvinakurike

Incremental meeting temporal summarization, summarizing relevant information of partial multi-party meeting dialogue, is emerging as the next challenge in summarization research. Here we examine the extent to which human abstractive summaries of the preceding increments (context) can be combined with extractive meeting dialogue to generate abstractive summaries. We find that previous context improves ROUGE scores. Our findings further suggest that contexts begin to outweigh the dialogue. Using keyphrase extraction and semantic role labeling (SRL), we find that SRL captures relevant information without overwhelming the the model architecture. By compressing the previous contexts by ~70%, we achieve better ROUGE scores over our baseline models. Collectively, these results suggest that context matters, as does the way in which context is presented to the model.

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Are We Summarizing the Right Way? A Survey of Dialogue Summarization Data Sets
Don Tuggener | Margot Mieskes | Jan Deriu | Mark Cieliebak

Dialogue summarization is a long-standing task in the field of NLP, and several data sets with dialogues and associated human-written summaries of different styles exist. However, it is unclear for which type of dialogue which type of summary is most appropriate. For this reason, we apply a linguistic model of dialogue types to derive matching summary items and NLP tasks. This allows us to map existing dialogue summarization data sets into this model and identify gaps and potential directions for future work. As part of this process, we also provide an extensive overview of existing dialogue summarization data sets.

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Modeling Endorsement for Multi-Document Abstractive Summarization
Logan Lebanoff | Bingqing Wang | Zhe Feng | Fei Liu

A crucial difference between single- and multi-document summarization is how salient content manifests itself in the document(s). While such content may appear at the beginning of a single document, essential information is frequently reiterated in a set of documents related to a particular topic, resulting in an endorsement effect that increases information salience. In this paper, we model the cross-document endorsement effect and its utilization in multiple document summarization. Our method generates a synopsis from each document, which serves as an endorser to identify salient content from other documents. Strongly endorsed text segments are used to enrich a neural encoder-decoder model to consolidate them into an abstractive summary. The method has a great potential to learn from fewer examples to identify salient content, which alleviates the need for costly retraining when the set of documents is dynamically adjusted. Through extensive experiments on benchmark multi-document summarization datasets, we demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed method over strong published baselines. Finally, we shed light on future research directions and discuss broader challenges of this task using a case study.

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SUBSUME: A Dataset for Subjective Summary Extraction from Wikipedia Documents
Nishant Yadav | Matteo Brucato | Anna Fariha | Oscar Youngquist | Julian Killingback | Alexandra Meliou | Peter Haas

Many applications require generation of summaries tailored to the user’s information needs, i.e., their intent. Methods that express intent via explicit user queries fall short when query interpretation is subjective. Several datasets exist for summarization with objective intents where, for each document and intent (e.g., “weather”), a single summary suffices for all users. No datasets exist, however, for subjective intents (e.g., “interesting places”) where different users will provide different summaries. We present SUBSUME, the first dataset for evaluation of SUBjective SUMmary Extraction systems. SUBSUME contains 2,200 (document, intent, summary) triplets over 48 Wikipedia pages, with ten intents of varying subjectivity, provided by 103 individuals over Mechanical Turk. We demonstrate statistically that the intents in SUBSUME vary systematically in subjectivity. To indicate SUBSUME’s usefulness, we explore a collection of baseline algorithms for subjective extractive summarization and show that (i) as expected, example-based approaches better capture subjective intents than query-based ones, and (ii) there is ample scope for improving upon the baseline algorithms, thereby motivating further research on this challenging problem.

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TLDR9+: A Large Scale Resource for Extreme Summarization of Social Media Posts
Sajad Sotudeh | Hanieh Deilamsalehy | Franck Dernoncourt | Nazli Goharian

Recent models in developing summarization systems consist of millions of parameters and the model performance is highly dependent on the abundance of training data. While most existing summarization corpora contain data in the order of thousands to one million, generation of large-scale summarization datasets in order of couple of millions is yet to be explored. Practically, more data is better at generalizing the training patterns to unseen data. In this paper, we introduce TLDR9+ –a large-scale summarization dataset– containing over 9 million training instances extracted from Reddit discussion forum ([HTTP]). This dataset is specifically gathered to perform extreme summarization (i.e., generating one-sentence summary in high compression and abstraction) and is more than twice larger than the previously proposed dataset. We go one step further and with the help of human annotations, we distill a more fine-grained dataset by sampling High-Quality instances from TLDR9+ and call it TLDRHQ dataset. We further pinpoint different state-of-the-art summarization models on our proposed datasets.

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A New Dataset and Efficient Baselines for Document-level Text Simplification in German
Annette Rios | Nicolas Spring | Tannon Kew | Marek Kostrzewa | Andreas Säuberli | Mathias Müller | Sarah Ebling

The task of document-level text simplification is very similar to summarization with the additional difficulty of reducing complexity. We introduce a newly collected data set of German texts, collected from the Swiss news magazine 20 Minuten (‘20 Minutes’) that consists of full articles paired with simplified summaries. Furthermore, we present experiments on automatic text simplification with the pretrained multilingual mBART and a modified version thereof that is more memory-friendly, using both our new data set and existing simplification corpora. Our modifications of mBART let us train at a lower memory cost without much loss in performance, in fact, the smaller mBART even improves over the standard model in a setting with multiple simplification levels.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Natural Legal Language Processing Workshop 2021

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Proceedings of the Natural Legal Language Processing Workshop 2021
Nikolaos Aletras | Ion Androutsopoulos | Leslie Barrett | Catalina Goanta | Daniel Preotiuc-Pietro

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A Corpus for Multilingual Analysis of Online Terms of Service
Kasper Drawzeski | Andrea Galassi | Agnieszka Jablonowska | Francesca Lagioia | Marco Lippi | Hans Wolfgang Micklitz | Giovanni Sartor | Giacomo Tagiuri | Paolo Torroni

We present the first annotated corpus for multilingual analysis of potentially unfair clauses in online Terms of Service. The data set comprises a total of 100 contracts, obtained from 25 documents annotated in four different languages: English, German, Italian, and Polish. For each contract, potentially unfair clauses for the consumer are annotated, for nine different unfairness categories. We show how a simple yet efficient annotation projection technique based on sentence embeddings could be used to automatically transfer annotations across languages.

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Named Entity Recognition in the Romanian Legal Domain
Vasile Pais | Maria Mitrofan | Carol Luca Gasan | Vlad Coneschi | Alexandru Ianov

Recognition of named entities present in text is an important step towards information extraction and natural language understanding. This work presents a named entity recognition system for the Romanian legal domain. The system makes use of the gold annotated LegalNERo corpus. Furthermore, the system combines multiple distributional representations of words, including word embeddings trained on a large legal domain corpus. All the resources, including the corpus, model and word embeddings are open sourced. Finally, the best system is available for direct usage in the RELATE platform.

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Swiss-Judgment-Prediction: A Multilingual Legal Judgment Prediction Benchmark
Joel Niklaus | Ilias Chalkidis | Matthias Stürmer

In many jurisdictions, the excessive workload of courts leads to high delays. Suitable predictive AI models can assist legal professionals in their work, and thus enhance and speed up the process. So far, Legal Judgment Prediction (LJP) datasets have been released in English, French, and Chinese. We publicly release a multilingual (German, French, and Italian), diachronic (2000-2020) corpus of 85K cases from the Federal Supreme Court of Switzer- land (FSCS). We evaluate state-of-the-art BERT-based methods including two variants of BERT that overcome the BERT input (text) length limitation (up to 512 tokens). Hierarchical BERT has the best performance (approx. 68-70% Macro-F1-Score in German and French). Furthermore, we study how several factors (canton of origin, year of publication, text length, legal area) affect performance. We release both the benchmark dataset and our code to accelerate future research and ensure reproducibility.

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Automated Extraction of Sentencing Decisions from Court Cases in the Hebrew Language
Mohr Wenger | Tom Kalir | Noga Berger | Carmit Klar Chalamish | Renana Keydar | Gabriel Stanovsky

We present the task of Automated Punishment Extraction (APE) in sentencing decisions from criminal court cases in Hebrew. Addressing APE will enable the identification of sentencing patterns and constitute an important stepping stone for many follow up legal NLP applications in Hebrew, including the prediction of sentencing decisions. We curate a dataset of sexual assault sentencing decisions and a manually-annotated evaluation dataset, and implement rule-based and supervised models. We find that while supervised models can identify the sentence containing the punishment with good accuracy, rule-based approaches outperform them on the full APE task. We conclude by presenting a first analysis of sentencing patterns in our dataset and analyze common models’ errors, indicating avenues for future work, such as distinguishing between probation and actual imprisonment punishment. We will make all our resources available upon request, including data, annotation, and first benchmark models.

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A Multilingual Approach to Identify and Classify Exceptional Measures against COVID-19
Georgios Tziafas | Eugenie de Saint-Phalle | Wietse de Vries | Clara Egger | Tommaso Caselli

The COVID-19 pandemic has witnessed the implementations of exceptional measures by governments across the world to counteract its impact. This work presents the initial results of an on-going project, EXCEPTIUS, aiming to automatically identify, classify and com- pare exceptional measures against COVID-19 across 32 countries in Europe. To this goal, we created a corpus of legal documents with sentence-level annotations of eight different classes of exceptional measures that are im- plemented across these countries. We evalu- ated multiple multi-label classifiers on a manu- ally annotated corpus at sentence level. The XLM-RoBERTa model achieves highest per- formance on this multilingual multi-label clas- sification task, with a macro-average F1 score of 59.8%.

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Multi-granular Legal Topic Classification on Greek Legislation
Christos Papaloukas | Ilias Chalkidis | Konstantinos Athinaios | Despina Pantazi | Manolis Koubarakis

In this work, we study the task of classifying legal texts written in the Greek language. We introduce and make publicly available a novel dataset based on Greek legislation, consisting of more than 47 thousand official, categorized Greek legislation resources. We experiment with this dataset and evaluate a battery of advanced methods and classifiers, ranging from traditional machine learning and RNN-based methods to state-of-the-art Transformer-based methods. We show that recurrent architectures with domain-specific word embeddings offer improved overall performance while being competitive even to transformer-based models. Finally, we show that cutting-edge multilingual and monolingual transformer-based models brawl on the top of the classifiers’ ranking, making us question the necessity of training monolingual transfer learning models as a rule of thumb. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time the task of Greek legal text classification is considered in an open research project, while also Greek is a language with very limited NLP resources in general.

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Machine Extraction of Tax Laws from Legislative Texts
Elliott Ash | Malka Guillot | Luyang Han

Using a corpus of compiled codes from U.S. states containing labeled tax law sections, we train text classifiers to automatically tag tax-law documents and, further, to identify the associated revenue source (e.g. income, property, or sales). After evaluating classifier performance in held-out test data, we apply them to an historical corpus of U.S. state legislation to extract the flow of relevant laws over the years 1910 through 2010. We document that the classifiers are effective in the historical corpus, for example by automatically detecting establishments of state personal income taxes. The trained models with replication code are published at https://github.com/luyang521/tax-classification.

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jurBERT: A Romanian BERT Model for Legal Judgement Prediction
Mihai Masala | Radu Cristian Alexandru Iacob | Ana Sabina Uban | Marina Cidota | Horia Velicu | Traian Rebedea | Marius Popescu

Transformer-based models have become the de facto standard in the field of Natural Language Processing (NLP). By leveraging large unlabeled text corpora, they enable efficient transfer learning leading to state-of-the-art results on numerous NLP tasks. Nevertheless, for low resource languages and highly specialized tasks, transformer models tend to lag behind more classical approaches (e.g. SVM, LSTM) due to the lack of aforementioned corpora. In this paper we focus on the legal domain and we introduce a Romanian BERT model pre-trained on a large specialized corpus. Our model outperforms several strong baselines for legal judgement prediction on two different corpora consisting of cases from trials involving banks in Romania.

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JuriBERT: A Masked-Language Model Adaptation for French Legal Text
Stella Douka | Hadi Abdine | Michalis Vazirgiannis | Rajaa El Hamdani | David Restrepo Amariles

Language models have proven to be very useful when adapted to specific domains. Nonetheless, little research has been done on the adaptation of domain-specific BERT models in the French language. In this paper, we focus on creating a language model adapted to French legal text with the goal of helping law professionals. We conclude that some specific tasks do not benefit from generic language models pre-trained on large amounts of data. We explore the use of smaller architectures in domain-specific sub-languages and their benefits for French legal text. We prove that domain-specific pre-trained models can perform better than their equivalent generalised ones in the legal domain. Finally, we release JuriBERT, a new set of BERT models adapted to the French legal domain.

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Few-shot and Zero-shot Approaches to Legal Text Classification: A Case Study in the Financial Sector
Rajdeep Sarkar | Atul Kr. Ojha | Jay Megaro | John Mariano | Vall Herard | John P. McCrae

The application of predictive coding techniques to legal texts has the potential to greatly reduce the cost of legal review of documents, however, there is such a wide array of legal tasks and continuously evolving legislation that it is hard to construct sufficient training data to cover all cases. In this paper, we investigate few-shot and zero-shot approaches that require substantially less training data and introduce a triplet architecture, which for promissory statements produces performance close to that of a supervised system. This method allows predictive coding methods to be rapidly developed for new regulations and markets.

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A Free Format Legal Question Answering System
Soha Khazaeli | Janardhana Punuru | Chad Morris | Sanjay Sharma | Bert Staub | Michael Cole | Sunny Chiu-Webster | Dhruv Sakalley

We present an information retrieval-based question answer system to answer legal questions. The system is not limited to a predefined set of questions or patterns and uses both sparse vector search and embeddings for input to a BERT-based answer re-ranking system. A combination of general domain and legal domain data is used for training. This natural question answering system is in production and is used commercially.

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Searching for Legal Documents at Paragraph Level: Automating Label Generation and Use of an Extended Attention Mask for Boosting Neural Models of Semantic Similarity
Li Tang | Simon Clematide

Searching for legal documents is a specialized Information Retrieval task that is relevant for expert users (lawyers and their assistants) and for non-expert users. By searching previous court decisions (cases), a user can better prepare the legal reasoning of a new case. Being able to search using a natural language text snippet instead of a more artificial query could help to prevent query formulation issues. Also, if semantic similarity could be modeled beyond exact lexical matches, more relevant results can be found even if the query terms don’t match exactly. For this domain, we formulated a task to compare different ways of modeling semantic similarity at paragraph level, using neural and non-neural systems. We compared systems that encode the query and the search collection paragraphs as vectors, enabling the use of cosine similarity for results ranking. After building a German dataset for cases and statutes from Switzerland, and extracting citations from cases to statutes, we developed an algorithm for estimating semantic similarity at paragraph level, using a link-based similarity method. When evaluating different systems in this way, we find that semantic similarity modeling by neural systems can be boosted with an extended attention mask that quenches noise in the inputs.

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GerDaLIR: A German Dataset for Legal Information Retrieval
Marco Wrzalik | Dirk Krechel

We present GerDaLIR, a German Dataset for Legal Information Retrieval based on case documents from the open legal information platform Open Legal Data. The dataset consists of 123K queries, each labelled with at least one relevant document in a collection of 131K case documents. We conduct several baseline experiments including BM25 and a state-of-the-art neural re-ranker. With our dataset, we aim to provide a standardized benchmark for German LIR and promote open research in this area. Beyond that, our dataset comprises sufficient training data to be used as a downstream task for German or multilingual language models.

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SPaR.txt, a Cheap Shallow Parsing Approach for Regulatory Texts
Ruben Kruiper | Ioannis Konstas | Alasdair J.G. Gray | Farhad Sadeghineko | Richard Watson | Bimal Kumar

Automated Compliance Checking (ACC) systems aim to semantically parse building regulations to a set of rules. However, semantic parsing is known to be hard and requires large amounts of training data. The complexity of creating such training data has led to research that focuses on small sub-tasks, such as shallow parsing or the extraction of a limited subset of rules. This study introduces a shallow parsing task for which training data is relatively cheap to create, with the aim of learning a lexicon for ACC. We annotate a small domain-specific dataset of 200 sentences, SPaR.txt, and train a sequence tagger that achieves 79,93 F1-score on the test set. We then show through manual evaluation that the model identifies most (89,84%) defined terms in a set of building regulation documents, and that both contiguous and discontiguous Multi-Word Expressions (MWE) are discovered with reasonable accuracy (70,3%).

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Capturing Logical Structure of Visually Structured Documents with Multimodal Transition Parser
Yuta Koreeda | Christopher Manning

While many NLP pipelines assume raw, clean texts, many texts we encounter in the wild, including a vast majority of legal documents, are not so clean, with many of them being visually structured documents (VSDs) such as PDFs. Conventional preprocessing tools for VSDs mainly focused on word segmentation and coarse layout analysis, whereas fine-grained logical structure analysis (such as identifying paragraph boundaries and their hierarchies) of VSDs is underexplored. To that end, we proposed to formulate the task as prediction of “transition labels” between text fragments that maps the fragments to a tree, and developed a feature-based machine learning system that fuses visual, textual and semantic cues. Our system is easily customizable to different types of VSDs and it significantly outperformed baselines in identifying different structures in VSDs. For example, our system obtained a paragraph boundary detection F1 score of 0.953 which is significantly better than a popular PDF-to-text tool with an F1 score of 0.739.

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Legal Terminology Extraction with the Termolator
Nhi Pham | Lachlan Pham | Adam L. Meyers

Domain-specific terminology is ubiquitous in legal documents. Despite potential utility in populating glossaries and ontologies or as arguments in information extraction and document classification tasks, there has been limited work done for legal terminology extraction. This paper describes some work to remedy this omission. In the described research, we make some modifications to the Termolator, a high-performing, open-source terminology extractor which has been tuned to scientific articles. Our changes are designed to improve the Termolator’s results when applied to United States Supreme Court decisions. Unaltered and using the recommended settings, the original Termolator provides a list of terminology with a precision of 23% and 25% for the categories of economic activity (development set) and criminal procedures (test set) respectively. These were the most frequently occurring broad issues in Washington University in St. Louis Database corpus, a database of Supreme Court decisions that have been manually classified by topic. Our contribution includes the introduction of several legal domain-specific filtration steps and changes to the web search relevance score; each incrementally improved precision culminating in a combined precision of 63% and 65%. We also evaluated the baseline version of the Termolator on more specific subcategories and on broad issues with fewer cases. Our results show that a narrowed scope as well as smaller document numbers significantly lower the precision. In both cases, the modifications to the Termolator improve precision.

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Supervised Identification of Participant Slots in Contracts
Dan Simonson

This paper presents a technique for the identification of participant slots in English language contracts. Taking inspiration from unsupervised slot extraction techniques, the system presented here uses a supervised approach to identify terms used to refer to a genre-specific slot in novel contracts. We evaluate the system in multiple feature configurations to demonstrate that the best performing system in both genres of contracts omits the exact mention form from consideration—even though such mention forms are often the name of the slot under consideration—and is instead based solely on the dependency label and parent; in other words, a more reliable quantification of a party’s role in a contract is found in what they do rather than what they are named.

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Named Entity Recognition in Historic Legal Text: A Transformer and State Machine Ensemble Method
Fernando Trias | Hongming Wang | Sylvain Jaume | Stratos Idreos

Older legal texts are often scanned and digitized via Optical Character Recognition (OCR), which results in numerous errors. Although spelling and grammar checkers can correct much of the scanned text automatically, Named Entity Recognition (NER) is challenging, making correction of names difficult. To solve this, we developed an ensemble language model using a transformer neural network architecture combined with a finite state machine to extract names from English-language legal text. We use the US-based English language Harvard Caselaw Access Project for training and testing. Then, the extracted names are subjected to heuristic textual analysis to identify errors, make corrections, and quantify the extent of problems. With this system, we are able to extract most names, automatically correct numerous errors and identify potential mistakes that can later be reviewed for manual correction.

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Summarization of German Court Rulings
Ingo Glaser | Sebastian Moser | Florian Matthes

Historically speaking, the German legal language is widely neglected in NLP research, especially in summarization systems, as most of them are based on English newspaper articles. In this paper, we propose the task of automatic summarization of German court rulings. Due to their complexity and length, it is of critical importance that legal practitioners can quickly identify the content of a verdict and thus be able to decide on the relevance for a given legal case. To tackle this problem, we introduce a new dataset consisting of 100k German judgments with short summaries. Our dataset has the highest compression ratio among the most common summarization datasets. German court rulings contain much structural information, so we create a pre-processing pipeline tailored explicitly to the German legal domain. Additionally, we implement multiple extractive as well as abstractive summarization systems and build a wide variety of baseline models. Our best model achieves a ROUGE-1 score of 30.50. Therefore with this work, we are laying the crucial groundwork for further research on German summarization systems.

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Learning from Limited Labels for Long Legal Dialogue
Jenny Hong | Derek Chong | Christopher Manning

We study attempting to achieve high accuracy information extraction of case factors from a challenging dataset of parole hearings, which, compared to other legal NLP datasets, has longer texts, with fewer labels. On this corpus, existing work directly applying pretrained neural models has failed to extract all but a few relatively basic items with little improvement over rule-based extraction. We address two challenges posed by existing work: training on long documents and reasoning over complex speech patterns. We use a similar approach to the two-step open-domain question answering approach by using a Reducer to extract relevant text segments and a Producer to generate both extractive answers and non-extractive classifications. In a context like ours, with limited labeled data, we show that a superior approach for strong performance within limited development time is to use a combination of a rule-based Reducer and a neural Producer. We study four representative tasks from the parole dataset. On all four, we improve extraction from the previous benchmark of 0.41–0.63 to 0.83–0.89 F1.

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Automating Claim Construction in Patent Applications: The CMUmine Dataset
Ozan Tonguz | Yiwei Qin | Yimeng Gu | Hyun Hannah Moon

Intellectual Property (IP) in the form of issued patents is a critical and very desirable element of innovation in high-tech. In this position paper, we explore the possibility of automating the legal task of Claim Construction in patent applications via Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Machine Learning (ML). To this end, we first create a large dataset known as CMUmine™and then demonstrate that, using NLP and ML techniques the Claim Construction in patent applications, a crucial legal task currently performed by IP attorneys, can be automated. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first public patent application dataset. Our results look very promising in automating the patent application process.

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Effectively Leveraging BERT for Legal Document Classification
Nut Limsopatham

Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT) has achieved state-of-the-art performances on several text classification tasks, such as GLUE and sentiment analysis. Recent work in the legal domain started to use BERT on tasks, such as legal judgement prediction and violation prediction. A common practise in using BERT is to fine-tune a pre-trained model on a target task and truncate the input texts to the size of the BERT input (e.g. at most 512 tokens). However, due to the unique characteristics of legal documents, it is not clear how to effectively adapt BERT in the legal domain. In this work, we investigate how to deal with long documents, and how is the importance of pre-training on documents from the same domain as the target task. We conduct experiments on the two recent datasets: ECHR Violation Dataset and the Overruling Task Dataset, which are multi-label and binary classification tasks, respectively. Importantly, on average the number of tokens in a document from the ECHR Violation Dataset is more than 1,600. While the documents in the Overruling Task Dataset are shorter (the maximum number of tokens is 204). We thoroughly compare several techniques for adapting BERT on long documents and compare different models pre-trained on the legal and other domains. Our experimental results show that we need to explicitly adapt BERT to handle long documents, as the truncation leads to less effective performance. We also found that pre-training on the documents that are similar to the target task would result in more effective performance on several scenario.

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Semi-automatic Triage of Requests for Free Legal Assistance
Meladel Mistica | Jey Han Lau | Brayden Merrifield | Kate Fazio | Timothy Baldwin

Free legal assistance is critically under-resourced, and many of those who seek legal help have their needs unmet. A major bottleneck in the provision of free legal assistance to those most in need is the determination of the precise nature of the legal problem. This paper describes a collaboration with a major provider of free legal assistance, and the deployment of natural language processing models to assign area-of-law categories to real-world requests for legal assistance. In particular, we focus on an investigation of models to generate efficiencies in the triage process, but also the risks associated with naive use of model predictions, including fairness across different user demographics.

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Automatic Resolution of Domain Name Disputes
Wayan Oger Vihikan | Meladel Mistica | Inbar Levy | Andrew Christie | Timothy Baldwin

We introduce the new task of domain name dispute resolution (DNDR), that predicts the outcome of a process for resolving disputes about legal entitlement to a domain name. TheICANN UDRP establishes a mandatory arbitration process for a dispute between a trade-mark owner and a domain name registrant pertaining to a generic Top-Level Domain (gTLD) name (one ending in .COM, .ORG, .NET, etc). The nature of the problem leads to a very skewed data set, which stems from being able to register a domain name with extreme ease, very little expense, and no need to prove an entitlement to it. In this paper, we describe thetask and associated data set. We also present benchmarking results based on a range of mod-els, which show that simple baselines are in general difficult to beat due to the skewed data distribution, but in the specific case of the respondent having submitted a response, a fine-tuned BERT model offers considerable improvements over a majority-class model
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Natural Language Processing for Conversational AI

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Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Natural Language Processing for Conversational AI
Alexandros Papangelis | Paweł Budzianowski | Bing Liu | Elnaz Nouri | Abhinav Rastogi | Yun-Nung Chen

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Taking Things Personally: Third Person to First Person Rephrasing
Marcel Granero Moya | Panagiotis Agis Oikonomou Filandras

The recent advancement of digital assistant technologies has opened new possibilities in the experiences they can provide. One of them is the ability to converse with a persona, e.g. celebrities, famous imaginary characters, etc. This experience requires that the replies are answered from the point of view of the persona, i.e. the first person. Since the facts about characters are typically found expressed in the third person, there is a need to rephrase them to the first person in order for the assistant not to break character and the experience to remain immersive. However, the automatic solution to such a problem is largely unexplored by the community. In this work, we present a new task for NLP: third person to first person rephrasing. We define the task and analyze its major challenges. We create and publish a novel dataset with 3493 human-annotated pairs of celebrity facts in the third person with their rephrased sentence in the first person. Moreover, we propose a transformer-based pipeline that correctly rephrases 92.0% of sentences compared to 77.0% rephrased by a rule-based baseline system.

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Few-Shot Intent Classification by Gauging Entailment Relationship Between Utterance and Semantic Label
Jin Qu | Kazuma Hashimoto | Wenhao Liu | Caiming Xiong | Yingbo Zhou

Zhang et al. (2020) proposed to formulate few-shot intent classification as natural language inference (NLI) between query utterances and examples in the training set. The method is known as discriminative nearest neighbor classification or DNNC. Inspired by this work, we propose to simplify the NLI-style classification pipeline to be the entailment prediction on the utterance-semantic-label-pair (USLP). The semantic information in the labels can thus been infused into the classification process. Compared with DNNC, our proposed method is more efficient in both training and serving since it is based upon the entailment between query utterance and labels instead of all the training examples. The DNNC method requires more than one example per intent while the USLP approach does not have such constraint. In the 1-shot experiments on the CLINC150 (Larson et al., 2019) dataset, the USLP method outperforms traditional classification approach by >20 points (in-domain ac- curacy). We also find that longer and semantically meaningful labels tend to benefit model performance, however, the benefit shrinks as more training data is available.

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Personalized Extractive Summarization Using an Ising Machine Towards Real-time Generation of Efficient and Coherent Dialogue Scenarios
Hiroaki Takatsu | Takahiro Kashikawa | Koichi Kimura | Ryota Ando | Yoichi Matsuyama

We propose a personalized dialogue scenario generation system which transmits efficient and coherent information with a real-time extractive summarization method optimized by an Ising machine. The summarization problem is formulated as a quadratic unconstraint binary optimization (QUBO) problem, which extracts sentences that maximize the sum of the degree of user’s interest in the sentences of documents with the discourse structure of each document and the total utterance time as constraints. To evaluate the proposed method, we constructed a news article corpus with annotations of the discourse structure, users’ profiles, and interests in sentences and topics. The experimental results confirmed that a Digital Annealer, which is a simulated annealing-based Ising machine, can solve our QUBO model in a practical time without violating the constraints using this dataset.

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Multilingual Paraphrase Generation For Bootstrapping New Features in Task-Oriented Dialog Systems
Subhadarshi Panda | Caglar Tirkaz | Tobias Falke | Patrick Lehnen

The lack of labeled training data for new features is a common problem in rapidly changing real-world dialog systems. As a solution, we propose a multilingual paraphrase generation model that can be used to generate novel utterances for a target feature and target language. The generated utterances can be used to augment existing training data to improve intent classification and slot labeling models. We evaluate the quality of generated utterances using intrinsic evaluation metrics and by conducting downstream evaluation experiments with English as the source language and nine different target languages. Our method shows promise across languages, even in a zero-shot setting where no seed data is available.

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Overcoming Conflicting Data when Updating a Neural Semantic Parser
David Gaddy | Alex Kouzemtchenko | Pavankumar Reddy Muddireddy | Prateek Kolhar | Rushin Shah

In this paper, we explore how to use a small amount of new data to update a task-oriented semantic parsing model when the desired output for some examples has changed. When making updates in this way, one potential problem that arises is the presence of conflicting data, or out-of-date labels in the original training set. To evaluate the impact of this understudied problem, we propose an experimental setup for simulating changes to a neural semantic parser. We show that the presence of conflicting data greatly hinders learning of an update, then explore several methods to mitigate its effect. Our multi-task and data selection methods lead to large improvements in model accuracy compared to a naive data-mixing strategy, and our best method closes 86% of the accuracy gap between this baseline and an oracle upper bound.

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Not So Fast, Classifier – Accuracy and Entropy Reduction in Incremental Intent Classification
Lianna Hrycyk | Alessandra Zarcone | Luzian Hahn

Incremental intent classification requires the assignment of intent labels to partial utterances. However, partial utterances do not necessarily contain enough information to be mapped to the intent class of their complete utterance (correctly and with a certain degree of confidence). Using the final interpretation as the ground truth to measure a classifier’s accuracy during intent classification of partial utterances is thus problematic. We release inCLINC, a dataset of partial and full utterances with human annotations of plausible intent labels for different portions of each utterance, as an upper (human) baseline for incremental intent classification. We analyse the incremental annotations and propose entropy reduction as a measure of human annotators’ convergence on an interpretation (i.e. intent label). We argue that, when the annotators do not converge to one or a few possible interpretations and yet the classifier already identifies the final intent class early on, it is a sign of overfitting that can be ascribed to artefacts in the dataset.

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On the Robustness of Intent Classification and Slot Labeling in Goal-oriented Dialog Systems to Real-world Noise
Sailik Sengupta | Jason Krone | Saab Mansour

Intent Classification (IC) and Slot Labeling (SL) models, which form the basis of dialogue systems, often encounter noisy data in real-word environments. In this work, we investigate how robust IC/SL models are to noisy data. We collect and publicly release a test-suite for seven common noise types found in production human-to-bot conversations (abbreviations, casing, misspellings, morphological variants, paraphrases, punctuation and synonyms). On this test-suite, we show that common noise types substantially degrade the IC accuracy and SL F1 performance of state-of-the-art BERT-based IC/SL models. By leveraging cross-noise robustness transfer, i.e. training on one noise type to improve robustness on another noise type, we design aggregate data-augmentation approaches that increase the model performance across all seven noise types by +10.8% for IC accuracy and +15 points for SL F1 on average. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first work to present a single IC/SL model that is robust to a wide range of noise phenomena.

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Amendable Generation for Dialogue State Tracking
Xin Tian | Liankai Huang | Yingzhan Lin | Siqi Bao | Huang He | Yunyi Yang | Hua Wu | Fan Wang | Shuqi Sun

In task-oriented dialogue systems, recent dialogue state tracking methods tend to perform one-pass generation of the dialogue state based on the previous dialogue state. The mistakes of these models made at the current turn are prone to be carried over to the next turn, causing error propagation. In this paper, we propose a novel Amendable Generation for Dialogue State Tracking (AG-DST), which contains a two-pass generation process: (1) generating a primitive dialogue state based on the dialogue of the current turn and the previous dialogue state, and (2) amending the primitive dialogue state from the first pass. With the additional amending generation pass, our model is tasked to learn more robust dialogue state tracking by amending the errors that still exist in the primitive dialogue state, which plays the role of reviser in the double-checking process and alleviates unnecessary error propagation. Experimental results show that AG-DST significantly outperforms previous works in two active DST datasets (MultiWOZ 2.2 and WOZ 2.0), achieving new state-of-the-art performances.

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What Went Wrong? Explaining Overall Dialogue Quality through Utterance-Level Impacts
James D. Finch | Sarah E. Finch | Jinho D. Choi

Improving user experience of a dialogue system often requires intensive developer effort to read conversation logs, run statistical analyses, and intuit the relative importance of system shortcomings. This paper presents a novel approach to automated analysis of conversation logs that learns the relationship between user-system interactions and overall dialogue quality. Unlike prior work on utterance-level quality prediction, our approach learns the impact of each interaction from the overall user rating without utterance-level annotation, allowing resultant model conclusions to be derived on the basis of empirical evidence and at low cost. Our model identifies interactions that have a strong correlation with the overall dialogue quality in a chatbot setting. Experiments show that the automated analysis from our model agrees with expert judgments, making this work the first to show that such weakly-supervised learning of utterance-level quality prediction is highly achievable.

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XPersona: Evaluating Multilingual Personalized Chatbot
Zhaojiang Lin | Zihan Liu | Genta Indra Winata | Samuel Cahyawijaya | Andrea Madotto | Yejin Bang | Etsuko Ishii | Pascale Fung

Personalized dialogue systems are an essential step toward better human-machine interaction. Existing personalized dialogue agents rely on properly designed conversational datasets, which are mostly monolingual (e.g., English), which greatly limits the usage of conversational agents in other languages. In this paper, we propose a multi-lingual extension of Persona-Chat, namely XPersona. Our dataset includes persona conversations in six different languages other than English for evaluating multilingual personalized agents. We experiment with both multilingual and cross-lingual trained baselines and evaluate them against monolingual and translation-pipeline models using both automatic and human evaluation. Experimental results show that the multilingual trained models outperform the translation pipeline and that they are on par with the monolingual models, with the advantage of having a single model across multiple languages. On the other hand, the state-of-the-art cross-lingual trained models achieve inferior performance to the other models, showing that cross-lingual conversation modeling is a challenging task. We hope that our dataset and baselines will accelerate research in multilingual dialogue systems.

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Collaborative Data Relabeling for Robust and Diverse Voice Apps Recommendation in Intelligent Personal Assistants
Qian Hu | Thahir Mohamed | Wei Xiao | Zheng Gao | Xibin Gao | Radhika Arava | Xiyao Ma | Mohamed AbdelHady

Intelligent personal assistants (IPAs) such as Amazon Alexa, Google Assistant and Apple Siri extend their built-in capabilities by supporting voice apps developed by third-party developers. Sometimes the smart assistant is not able to successfully respond to user voice commands (aka utterances). There are many reasons including automatic speech recognition (ASR) error, natural language understanding (NLU) error, routing utterances to an irrelevant voice app or simply that the user is asking for a capability that is not supported yet. The failure to handle a voice command leads to customer frustration. In this paper, we introduce a fallback skill recommendation system to suggest a voice app to a customer for an unhandled voice command. One of the prominent challenges of developing a skill recommender system for IPAs is partial observation. To solve the partial observation problem, we propose collaborative data relabeling (CDR) method. In addition, CDR also improves the diversity of the recommended skills. We evaluate the proposed method both offline and online. The offline evaluation results show that the proposed system outperforms the baselines. The online A/B testing results show significant gain of customer experience metrics.

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Semi-supervised Intent Discovery with Contrastive Learning
Xiang Shen | Yinge Sun | Yao Zhang | Mani Najmabadi

User intent discovery is a key step in developing a Natural Language Understanding (NLU) module at the core of any modern Conversational AI system. Typically, human experts review a representative sample of user input data to discover new intents, which is subjective, costly, and error-prone. In this work, we aim to assist the NLU developers by presenting a novel method for discovering new intents at scale given a corpus of utterances. Our method utilizes supervised contrastive learning to leverage information from a domain-relevant, already labeled dataset and identifies new intents in the corpus at hand using unsupervised K-means clustering. Our method outperforms the state-of-the-art by a large margin up to 2% and 13% on two benchmark datasets, measured by clustering accuracy. Furthermore, we apply our method on a large dataset from the travel domain to demonstrate its effectiveness on a real-world use case.

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CS-BERT: a pretrained model for customer service dialogues
Peiyao Wang | Joyce Fang | Julia Reinspach

Large-scale pretrained transformer models have demonstrated state-of-the-art (SOTA) performance in a variety of NLP tasks. Nowadays, numerous pretrained models are available in different model flavors and different languages, and can be easily adapted to one’s downstream task. However, only a limited number of models are available for dialogue tasks, and in particular, goal-oriented dialogue tasks. In addition, the available pretrained models are trained on general domain language, creating a mismatch between the pretraining language and the downstream domain launguage. In this contribution, we present CS-BERT, a BERT model pretrained on millions of dialogues in the customer service domain. We evaluate CS-BERT on several downstream customer service dialogue tasks, and demonstrate that our in-domain pretraining is advantageous compared to other pretrained models in both zero-shot experiments as well as in finetuning experiments, especially in a low-resource data setting.

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PLATO-KAG: Unsupervised Knowledge-Grounded Conversation via Joint Modeling
Xinxian Huang | Huang He | Siqi Bao | Fan Wang | Hua Wu | Haifeng Wang

Large-scale conversation models are turning to leveraging external knowledge to improve the factual accuracy in response generation. Considering the infeasibility to annotate the external knowledge for large-scale dialogue corpora, it is desirable to learn the knowledge selection and response generation in an unsupervised manner. In this paper, we propose PLATO-KAG (Knowledge-Augmented Generation), an unsupervised learning approach for end-to-end knowledge-grounded conversation modeling. For each dialogue context, the top-k relevant knowledge elements are selected and then employed in knowledge-grounded response generation. The two components of knowledge selection and response generation are optimized jointly and effectively under a balanced objective. Experimental results on two publicly available datasets validate the superiority of PLATO-KAG.

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Improving Dialogue State Tracking by Joint Slot Modeling
Ting-Rui Chiang | Yi-Ting Yeh

Dialogue state tracking models play an important role in a task-oriented dialogue system. However, most of them model the slot types conditionally independently given the input. We discover that it may cause the model to be confused by slot types that share the same data type. To mitigate this issue, we propose TripPy-MRF and TripPy-LSTM that models the slots jointly. Our results show that they are able to alleviate the confusion mentioned above, and they push the state-of-the-art on dataset MultiWoz 2.1 from 58.7 to 61.3.

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Learning to Learn End-to-End Goal-Oriented Dialog From Related Dialog Tasks
Janarthanan Rajendran | Jonathan K. Kummerfeld | Satinder Baveja

For each goal-oriented dialog task of interest, large amounts of data need to be collected for end-to-end learning of a neural dialog system. Collecting that data is a costly and time-consuming process. Instead, we show that we can use only a small amount of data, supplemented with data from a related dialog task. Naively learning from related data fails to improve performance as the related data can be inconsistent with the target task. We describe a meta-learning based method that selectively learns from the related dialog task data. Our approach leads to significant accuracy improvements in an example dialog task.

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Personalized Search-based Query Rewrite System for Conversational AI
Eunah Cho | Ziyan Jiang | Jie Hao | Zheng Chen | Saurabh Gupta | Xing Fan | Chenlei Guo

Query rewrite (QR) is an emerging component in conversational AI systems, reducing user defect. User defect is caused by various reasons, such as errors in the spoken dialogue system, users’ slips of the tongue or their abridged language. Many of the user defects stem from personalized factors, such as user’s speech pattern, dialect, or preferences. In this work, we propose a personalized search-based QR framework, which focuses on automatic reduction of user defect. We build a personalized index for each user, which encompasses diverse affinity layers to reflect personal preferences for each user in the conversational AI. Our personalized QR system contains retrieval and ranking layers. Supported by user feedback based learning, training our models does not require hand-annotated data. Experiments on personalized test set showed that our personalized QR system is able to correct systematic and user errors by utilizing phonetic and semantic inputs.

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Dialogue Response Generation via Contrastive Latent Representation Learning
Shuyang Dai | Guoyin Wang | Sunghyun Park | Sungjin Lee

Large-scale auto-regressive models have achieved great success in dialogue response generation, with the help of Transformer layers. However, these models do not learn a representative latent space of the sentence distribution, making it hard to control the generation. Recent works have tried on learning sentence representations using Transformer-based framework, but do not model the context-response relationship embedded in the dialogue datasets. In this work, we aim to construct a robust sentence representation learning model, that is specifically designed for dialogue response generation, with Transformer-based encoder-decoder structure. An utterance-level contrastive learning is proposed, encoding predictive information in each context representation for its corresponding response. Extensive experiments are conducted to verify the robustness of the proposed representation learning mechanism. By using both reference-based and reference-free evaluation metrics, we provide detailed analysis on the generated sentences, demonstrating the effectiveness of our proposed model.

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AuGPT: Auxiliary Tasks and Data Augmentation for End-To-End Dialogue with Pre-Trained Language Models
Jonáš Kulhánek | Vojtěch Hudeček | Tomáš Nekvinda | Ondřej Dušek

Attention-based pre-trained language models such as GPT-2 brought considerable progress to end-to-end dialogue modelling. However, they also present considerable risks for task-oriented dialogue, such as lack of knowledge grounding or diversity. To address these issues, we introduce modified training objectives for language model finetuning, and we employ massive data augmentation via back-translation to increase the diversity of the training data. We further examine the possibilities of combining data from multiples sources to improve performance on the target dataset. We carefully evaluate our contributions with both human and automatic methods. Our model substantially outperforms the baseline on the MultiWOZ data and shows competitive performance with state of the art in both automatic and human evaluation.

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Investigating Pretrained Language Models for Graph-to-Text Generation
Leonardo F. R. Ribeiro | Martin Schmitt | Hinrich Schütze | Iryna Gurevych

Graph-to-text generation aims to generate fluent texts from graph-based data. In this paper, we investigate two recent pretrained language models (PLMs) and analyze the impact of different task-adaptive pretraining strategies for PLMs in graph-to-text generation. We present a study across three graph domains: meaning representations, Wikipedia knowledge graphs (KGs) and scientific KGs. We show that approaches based on PLMs BART and T5 achieve new state-of-the-art results and that task-adaptive pretraining strategies improve their performance even further. We report new state-of-the-art BLEU scores of 49.72 on AMR-LDC2017T10, 59.70 on WebNLG, and 25.66 on AGENDA datasets - a relative improvement of 31.8%, 4.5%, and 42.4%, respectively, with our models generating significantly more fluent texts than human references. In an extensive analysis, we identify possible reasons for the PLMs’ success on graph-to-text tasks. Our findings suggest that the PLMs benefit from similar facts seen during pretraining or fine-tuning, such that they perform well even when the input graph is reduced to a simple bag of node and edge labels.

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Style Control for Schema-Guided Natural Language Generation
Alicia Tsai | Shereen Oraby | Vittorio Perera | Jiun-Yu Kao | Yuheng Du | Anjali Narayan-Chen | Tagyoung Chung | Dilek Hakkani-Tur

Natural Language Generation (NLG) for task-oriented dialogue systems focuses on communicating specific content accurately, fluently, and coherently. While these attributes are crucial for a successful dialogue, it is also desirable to simultaneously accomplish specific stylistic goals, such as response length, point-of-view, descriptiveness, sentiment, formality, and empathy. In this work, we focus on stylistic control and evaluation for schema-guided NLG, with joint goals of achieving both semantic and stylistic control. We experiment in detail with various controlled generation methods for large pretrained language models: specifically, conditional training, guided fine-tuning, and guided decoding. We discuss their advantages and limitations, and evaluate them with a broad range of automatic and human evaluation metrics. Our results show that while high style accuracy and semantic correctness are easier to achieve for more lexically-defined styles with conditional training, stylistic control is also achievable for more semantically complex styles using discriminator-based guided decoding methods. The results also suggest that methods that are more scalable (with less hyper-parameters tuning) and that disentangle context generation and stylistic variations are more effective at achieving semantic correctness and style accuracy.

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Using Pause Information for More Accurate Entity Recognition
Sahas Dendukuri | Pooja Chitkara | Joel Ruben Antony Moniz | Xiao Yang | Manos Tsagkias | Stephen Pulman

Entity tags in human-machine dialog are integral to natural language understanding (NLU) tasks in conversational assistants. However, current systems struggle to accurately parse spoken queries with the typical use of text input alone, and often fail to understand the user intent. Previous work in linguistics has identified a cross-language tendency for longer speech pauses surrounding nouns as compared to verbs. We demonstrate that the linguistic observation on pauses can be used to improve accuracy in machine-learnt language understanding tasks. Analysis of pauses in French and English utterances from a commercial voice assistant shows the statistically significant difference in pause duration around multi-token entity span boundaries compared to within entity spans. Additionally, in contrast to text-based NLU, we apply pause duration to enrich contextual embeddings to improve shallow parsing of entities. Results show that our proposed novel embeddings improve the relative error rate by up to 8% consistently across three domains for French, without any added annotation or alignment costs to the parser.

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Think Before You Speak: Learning to Generate Implicit Knowledge for Response Generation by Self-Talk
Pei Zhou | Behnam Hedayatnia | Karthik Gopalakrishnan | Seokhwan Kim | Jay Pujara | Xiang Ren | Yang Liu | Dilek Hakkani-Tur

Humans make appropriate responses not only based on previous dialogue utterances but also on implicit background knowledge such as common sense. Although neural response generation models seem to produce human-like responses, they are mostly end-to-end and not generating intermediate grounds between a dialogue history and responses. This work aims to study if and how we can train an RG model that talks with itself to generate implicit knowledge before making responses. We further investigate can such models identify when to generate implicit background knowledge and when it is not necessary. Experimental results show that compared with models that directly generate responses given a dialogue history, self-talk models produce better-quality responses according to human evaluation on grammaticality, coherence, and engagingness. And models that are trained to identify when to self-talk further improves the response quality. Analysis on generated implicit knowledge shows that models mostly use the knowledge appropriately in the responses.

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Teach Me What to Say and I Will Learn What to Pick: Unsupervised Knowledge Selection Through Response Generation with Pretrained Generative Models
Ehsan Lotfi | Maxime De Bruyn | Jeska Buhmann | Walter Daelemans

Knowledge Grounded Conversation Models are usually based on a selection/retrieval module and a generation module, trained separately or simultaneously, with or without having access to a ‘gold’ knowledge option. With the introduction of large pre-trained generative models, the selection and generation part have become more and more entangled, shifting the focus towards enhancing knowledge incorporation (from multiple sources) instead of trying to pick the best knowledge option. These approaches however depend on knowledge labels and/or a separate dense retriever for their best performance. In this work we study the unsupervised selection abilities of pre-trained generative models (e.g. BART) and show that by adding a score-and-aggregate module between encoder and decoder, they are capable of learning to pick the proper knowledge through minimising the language modelling loss (i.e. without having access to knowledge labels). Trained as such, our model - K-Mine - shows competitive selection and generation performance against models that benefit from knowledge labels and/or separate dense retriever.

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Influence of user personality on dialogue task performance: A case study using a rule-based dialogue system
Ao Guo | Atsumoto Ohashi | Ryu Hirai | Yuya Chiba | Yuiko Tsunomori | Ryuichiro Higashinaka

Endowing a task-oriented dialogue system with adaptiveness to user personality can greatly help improve the performance of a dialogue task. However, such a dialogue system can be practically challenging to implement, because it is unclear how user personality influences dialogue task performance. To explore the relationship between user personality and dialogue task performance, we enrolled participants via crowdsourcing to first answer specified personality questionnaires and then chat with a dialogue system to accomplish assigned tasks. A rule-based dialogue system on the prevalent Multi-Domain Wizard-of-Oz (MultiWOZ) task was used. A total of 211 participants’ personalities and their 633 dialogues were collected and analyzed. The results revealed that sociable and extroverted people tended to fail the task, whereas neurotic people were more likely to succeed. We extracted features related to user dialogue behaviors and performed further analysis to determine which kind of behavior influences task performance. As a result, we identified that average utterance length and slots per utterance are the key features of dialogue behavior that are highly correlated with both task performance and user personality.

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Towards Code-Mixed Hinglish Dialogue Generation
Vibhav Agarwal | Pooja Rao | Dinesh Babu Jayagopi

Code-mixed language plays a crucial role in communication in multilingual societies. Though the recent growth of web users has greatly boosted the use of such mixed languages, the current generation of dialog systems is primarily monolingual. This increase in usage of code-mixed language has prompted dialog systems in a similar language. We present our work in Code-Mixed Dialog Generation, an unexplored task in code-mixed languages, generating utterances in code-mixed language rather than a single language that is more often just English. We present a new synthetic corpus in code-mix for dialogs, CM-DailyDialog, by converting an existing English-only dialog corpus to a mixed Hindi-English corpus. We then propose a baseline approach where we show the effectiveness of using mBART like multilingual sequence-to-sequence transformers for code-mixed dialog generation. Our best performing dialog models can conduct coherent conversations in Hindi-English mixed language as evaluated by human and automatic metrics setting new benchmarks for the Code-Mixed Dialog Generation task.

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Towards Zero and Few-shot Knowledge-seeking Turn Detection in Task-orientated Dialogue Systems
Di Jin | Shuyang Gao | Seokhwan Kim | Yang Liu | Dilek Hakkani-Tur

Most prior work on task-oriented dialogue systems is restricted to supporting domain APIs. However, users may have requests that are out of the scope of these APIs. This work focuses on identifying such user requests. Existing methods for this task mainly rely on fine-tuning pre-trained models on large annotated data. We propose a novel method, REDE, based on adaptive representation learning and density estimation. REDE can be applied to zero-shot cases, and quickly learns a high-performing detector with only a few shots by updating less than 3K parameters. We demonstrate REDE’s competitive performance on DSTC9 data and our newly collected test set.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Fourth Workshop on NLP for Internet Freedom: Censorship, Disinformation, and Propaganda

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Proceedings of the Fourth Workshop on NLP for Internet Freedom: Censorship, Disinformation, and Propaganda
Anna Feldman | Giovanni Da San Martino | Chris Leberknight | Preslav Nakov

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Identifying Automatically Generated Headlines using Transformers
Antonis Maronikolakis | Hinrich Schütze | Mark Stevenson

False information spread via the internet and social media influences public opinion and user activity, while generative models enable fake content to be generated faster and more cheaply than had previously been possible. In the not so distant future, identifying fake content generated by deep learning models will play a key role in protecting users from misinformation. To this end, a dataset containing human and computer-generated headlines was created and a user study indicated that humans were only able to identify the fake headlines in 47.8% of the cases. However, the most accurate automatic approach, transformers, achieved an overall accuracy of 85.7%, indicating that content generated from language models can be filtered out accurately.

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Improving Hate Speech Type and Target Detection with Hateful Metaphor Features
Jens Lemmens | Ilia Markov | Walter Daelemans

We study the usefulness of hateful metaphorsas features for the identification of the type and target of hate speech in Dutch Facebook comments. For this purpose, all hateful metaphors in the Dutch LiLaH corpus were annotated and interpreted in line with Conceptual Metaphor Theory and Critical Metaphor Analysis. We provide SVM and BERT/RoBERTa results, and investigate the effect of different metaphor information encoding methods on hate speech type and target detection accuracy. The results of the conducted experiments show that hateful metaphor features improve model performance for the both tasks. To our knowledge, it is the first time that the effectiveness of hateful metaphors as an information source for hatespeech classification is investigated.

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Improving Cross-Domain Hate Speech Detection by Reducing the False Positive Rate
Ilia Markov | Walter Daelemans

Hate speech detection is an actively growing field of research with a variety of recently proposed approaches that allowed to push the state-of-the-art results. One of the challenges of such automated approaches – namely recent deep learning models – is a risk of false positives (i.e., false accusations), which may lead to over-blocking or removal of harmless social media content in applications with little moderator intervention. We evaluate deep learning models both under in-domain and cross-domain hate speech detection conditions, and introduce an SVM approach that allows to significantly improve the state-of-the-art results when combined with the deep learning models through a simple majority-voting ensemble. The improvement is mainly due to a reduction of the false positive rate.

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Understanding the Impact of Evidence-Aware Sentence Selection for Fact Checking
Giannis Bekoulis | Christina Papagiannopoulou | Nikos Deligiannis

Fact Extraction and VERification (FEVER) is a recently introduced task that consists of the following subtasks (i) document retrieval, (ii) sentence retrieval, and (iii) claim verification. In this work, we focus on the subtask of sentence retrieval. Specifically, we propose an evidence-aware transformer-based model that outperforms all other models in terms of FEVER score by using a subset of training instances. In addition, we conduct a large experimental study to get a better understanding of the problem, while we summarize our findings by presenting future research challenges.

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Leveraging Community and Author Context to Explain the Performance and Bias of Text-Based Deception Detection Models
Galen Weld | Ellyn Ayton | Tim Althoff | Maria Glenski

Deceptive news posts shared in online communities can be detected with NLP models, and much recent research has focused on the development of such models. In this work, we use characteristics of online communities and authors — the context of how and where content is posted — to explain the performance of a neural network deception detection model and identify sub-populations who are disproportionately affected by model accuracy or failure. We examine who is posting the content, and where the content is posted to. We find that while author characteristics are better predictors of deceptive content than community characteristics, both characteristics are strongly correlated with model performance. Traditional performance metrics such as F1 score may fail to capture poor model performance on isolated sub-populations such as specific authors, and as such, more nuanced evaluation of deception detection models is critical.

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Never guess what I heard... Rumor Detection in Finnish News: a Dataset and a Baseline
Mika Hämäläinen | Khalid Alnajjar | Niko Partanen | Jack Rueter

This study presents a new dataset on rumor detection in Finnish language news headlines. We have evaluated two different LSTM based models and two different BERT models, and have found very significant differences in the results. A fine-tuned FinBERT reaches the best overall accuracy of 94.3% and rumor label accuracy of 96.0% of the time. However, a model fine-tuned on Multilingual BERT reaches the best factual label accuracy of 97.2%. Our results suggest that the performance difference is due to a difference in the original training data. Furthermore, we find that a regular LSTM model works better than one trained with a pretrained word2vec model. These findings suggest that more work needs to be done for pretrained models in Finnish language as they have been trained on small and biased corpora.

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Extractive and Abstractive Explanations for Fact-Checking and Evaluation of News
Ashkan Kazemi | Zehua Li | Verónica Pérez-Rosas | Rada Mihalcea

In this paper, we explore the construction of natural language explanations for news claims, with the goal of assisting fact-checking and news evaluation applications. We experiment with two methods: (1) an extractive method based on Biased TextRank – a resource-effective unsupervised graph-based algorithm for content extraction; and (2) an abstractive method based on the GPT-2 language model. We perform comparative evaluations on two misinformation datasets in the political and health news domains, and find that the extractive method shows the most promise.

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Generalisability of Topic Models in Cross-corpora Abusive Language Detection
Tulika Bose | Irina Illina | Dominique Fohr

Rapidly changing social media content calls for robust and generalisable abuse detection models. However, the state-of-the-art supervised models display degraded performance when they are evaluated on abusive comments that differ from the training corpus. We investigate if the performance of supervised models for cross-corpora abuse detection can be improved by incorporating additional information from topic models, as the latter can infer the latent topic mixtures from unseen samples. In particular, we combine topical information with representations from a model tuned for classifying abusive comments. Our performance analysis reveals that topic models are able to capture abuse-related topics that can transfer across corpora, and result in improved generalisability.

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AraStance: A Multi-Country and Multi-Domain Dataset of Arabic Stance Detection for Fact Checking
Tariq Alhindi | Amal Alabdulkarim | Ali Alshehri | Muhammad Abdul-Mageed | Preslav Nakov

With the continuing spread of misinformation and disinformation online, it is of increasing importance to develop combating mechanisms at scale in the form of automated systems that support multiple languages. One task of interest is claim veracity prediction, which can be addressed using stance detection with respect to relevant documents retrieved online. To this end, we present our new Arabic Stance Detection dataset (AraStance) of 4,063 claim–article pairs from a diverse set of sources comprising three fact-checking websites and one news website. AraStance covers false and true claims from multiple domains (e.g., politics, sports, health) and several Arab countries, and it is well-balanced between related and unrelated documents with respect to the claims. We benchmark AraStance, along with two other stance detection datasets, using a number of BERT-based models. Our best model achieves an accuracy of 85% and a macro F1 score of 78%, which leaves room for improvement and reflects the challenging nature of AraStance and the task of stance detection in general.

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MEAN: Multi-head Entity Aware Attention Networkfor Political Perspective Detection in News Media
Chang Li | Dan Goldwasser

The way information is generated and disseminated has changed dramatically over the last decade. Identifying the political perspective shaping the way events are discussed in the media becomes more important due to the sharp increase in the number of news outlets and articles. Previous approaches usually only leverage linguistic information. However, news articles attempt to maintain credibility and seem impartial. Therefore, bias is introduced in subtle ways, usually by emphasizing different aspects of the story. In this paper, we propose a novel framework that considers entities mentioned in news articles and external knowledge about them, capturing the bias with respect to those entities. We explore different ways to inject entity information into the text model. Experiments show that our proposed framework achieves significant improvements over the standard text models, and is capable of identifying the difference in news narratives with different perspectives.

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An Empirical Assessment of the Qualitative Aspects of Misinformation in Health News
Chaoyuan Zuo | Qi Zhang | Ritwik Banerjee

The explosion of online health news articles runs the risk of the proliferation of low-quality information. Within the existing work on fact-checking, however, relatively little attention has been paid to medical news. We present a health news classification task to determine whether medical news articles satisfy a set of review criteria deemed important by medical experts and health care journalists. We present a dataset of 1,119 health news paired with systematic reviews. The review criteria consist of six elements that are essential to the accuracy of medical news. We then present experiments comparing the classical token-based approach with the more recent transformer-based models. Our results show that detecting qualitative lapses is a challenging task with direct ramifications in misinformation, but is an important direction to pursue beyond assigning True or False labels to short claims.

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Findings of the NLP4IF-2021 Shared Tasks on Fighting the COVID-19 Infodemic and Censorship Detection
Shaden Shaar | Firoj Alam | Giovanni Da San Martino | Alex Nikolov | Wajdi Zaghouani | Preslav Nakov | Anna Feldman

We present the results and the main findings of the NLP4IF-2021 shared tasks. Task 1 focused on fighting the COVID-19 infodemic in social media, and it was offered in Arabic, Bulgarian, and English. Given a tweet, it asked to predict whether that tweet contains a verifiable claim, and if so, whether it is likely to be false, is of general interest, is likely to be harmful, and is worthy of manual fact-checking; also, whether it is harmful to society, and whether it requires the attention of policy makers. Task 2 focused on censorship detection, and was offered in Chinese. A total of ten teams submitted systems for task 1, and one team participated in task 2; nine teams also submitted a system description paper. Here, we present the tasks, analyze the results, and discuss the system submissions and the methods they used. Most submissions achieved sizable improvements over several baselines, and the best systems used pre-trained Transformers and ensembles. The data, the scorers and the leaderboards for the tasks are available at http://gitlab.com/NLP4IF/nlp4if-2021.

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DamascusTeam at NLP4IF2021: Fighting the Arabic COVID-19 Infodemic on Twitter Using AraBERT
Ahmad Hussein | Nada Ghneim | Ammar Joukhadar

The objective of this work was the introduction of an effective approach based on the AraBERT language model for fighting Tweets COVID-19 Infodemic. It was arranged in the form of a two-step pipeline, where the first step involved a series of pre-processing procedures to transform Twitter jargon, including emojis and emoticons, into plain text, and the second step exploited a version of AraBERT, which was pre-trained on plain text, to fine-tune and classify the tweets with respect to their Label. The use of language models pre-trained on plain texts rather than on tweets was motivated by the necessity to address two critical issues shown by the scientific literature, namely (1) pre-trained language models are widely available in many languages, avoiding the time-consuming and resource-intensive model training directly on tweets from scratch, allowing to focus only on their fine-tuning; (2) available plain text corpora are larger than tweet-only ones, allowing for better performance.

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NARNIA at NLP4IF-2021: Identification of Misinformation in COVID-19 Tweets Using BERTweet
Ankit Kumar | Naman Jhunjhunwala | Raksha Agarwal | Niladri Chatterjee

The spread of COVID-19 has been accompanied with widespread misinformation on social media. In particular, Twitterverse has seen a huge increase in dissemination of distorted facts and figures. The present work aims at identifying tweets regarding COVID-19 which contains harmful and false information. We have experimented with a number of Deep Learning-based models, including different word embeddings, such as Glove, ELMo, among others. BERTweet model achieved the best overall F1-score of 0.881 and secured the third rank on the above task.

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R00 at NLP4IF-2021 Fighting COVID-19 Infodemic with Transformers and More Transformers
Ahmed Qarqaz | Dia Abujaber | Malak Abdullah

This paper describes the winning model in the Arabic NLP4IF shared task for fighting the COVID-19 infodemic. The goal of the shared task is to check disinformation about COVID-19 in Arabic tweets. Our proposed model has been ranked 1st with an F1-Score of 0.780 and an Accuracy score of 0.762. A variety of transformer-based pre-trained language models have been experimented with through this study. The best-scored model is an ensemble of AraBERT-Base, Asafya-BERT, and ARBERT models. One of the study’s key findings is showing the effect the pre-processing can have on every model’s score. In addition to describing the winning model, the current study shows the error analysis.

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Multi Output Learning using Task Wise Attention for Predicting Binary Properties of Tweets : Shared-Task-On-Fighting the COVID-19 Infodemic
Ayush Suhane | Shreyas Kowshik

In this paper, we describe our system for the shared task on Fighting the COVID-19 Infodemic in the English Language. Our proposed architecture consists of a multi-output classification model for the seven tasks, with a task-wise multi-head attention layer for inter-task information aggregation. This was built on top of the Bidirectional Encoder Representations obtained from the RoBERTa Transformer. We were able to achieve a mean F1 score of 0.891 on the test data, leading us to the second position on the test-set leaderboard.

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iCompass at NLP4IF-2021–Fighting the COVID-19 Infodemic
Wassim Henia | Oumayma Rjab | Hatem Haddad | Chayma Fourati

This paper provides a detailed overview of the system and its outcomes, which were produced as part of the NLP4IF Shared Task on Fighting the COVID-19 Infodemic at NAACL 2021. This task is accomplished using a variety of techniques. We used state-of-the-art contextualized text representation models that were fine-tuned for the downstream task in hand. ARBERT, MARBERT,AraBERT, Arabic ALBERT and BERT-base-arabic were used. According to the results, BERT-base-arabic had the highest 0.784 F1 score on the test set.

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Fighting the COVID-19 Infodemic with a Holistic BERT Ensemble
Georgios Tziafas | Konstantinos Kogkalidis | Tommaso Caselli

This paper describes the TOKOFOU system, an ensemble model for misinformation detection tasks based on six different transformer-based pre-trained encoders, implemented in the context of the COVID-19 Infodemic Shared Task for English. We fine tune each model on each of the task’s questions and aggregate their prediction scores using a majority voting approach. TOKOFOU obtains an overall F1 score of 89.7%, ranking first.

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Detecting Multilingual COVID-19 Misinformation on Social Media via Contextualized Embeddings
Subhadarshi Panda | Sarah Ita Levitan

We present machine learning classifiers to automatically identify COVID-19 misinformation on social media in three languages: English, Bulgarian, and Arabic. We compared 4 multitask learning models for this task and found that a model trained with English BERT achieves the best results for English, and multilingual BERT achieves the best results for Bulgarian and Arabic. We experimented with zero shot, few shot, and target-only conditions to evaluate the impact of target-language training data on classifier performance, and to understand the capabilities of different models to generalize across languages in detecting misinformation online. This work was performed as a submission to the shared task, NLP4IF 2021: Fighting the COVID-19 Infodemic. Our best models achieved the second best evaluation test results for Bulgarian and Arabic among all the participating teams and obtained competitive scores for English.

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Transformers to Fight the COVID-19 Infodemic
Lasitha Uyangodage | Tharindu Ranasinghe | Hansi Hettiarachchi

The massive spread of false information on social media has become a global risk especially in a global pandemic situation like COVID-19. False information detection has thus become a surging research topic in recent months. NLP4IF-2021 shared task on fighting the COVID-19 infodemic has been organised to strengthen the research in false information detection where the participants are asked to predict seven different binary labels regarding false information in a tweet. The shared task has been organised in three languages; Arabic, Bulgarian and English. In this paper, we present our approach to tackle the task objective using transformers. Overall, our approach achieves a 0.707 mean F1 score in Arabic, 0.578 mean F1 score in Bulgarian and 0.864 mean F1 score in English ranking 4th place in all the languages.

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Classification of Censored Tweets in Chinese Language using XLNet
Shaikh Sahil Ahmed | Anand Kumar M.

In the growth of today’s world and advanced technology, social media networks play a significant role in impacting human lives. Censorship is the overthrowing of speech, public transmission, or other details that play a vast role in social media. The content may be considered harmful, sensitive, or inconvenient. Authorities like institutes, governments, and other organizations conduct Censorship. This paper has implemented a model that helps classify censored and uncensored tweets as a binary classification. The paper describes submission to the Censorship shared task of the NLP4IF 2021 workshop. We used various transformer-based pre-trained models, and XLNet outputs a better accuracy among all. We fine-tuned the model for better performance and achieved a reasonable accuracy, and calculated other performance metrics.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on NLP for Positive Impact

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Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on NLP for Positive Impact
Anjalie Field | Shrimai Prabhumoye | Maarten Sap | Zhijing Jin | Jieyu Zhao | Chris Brockett

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Restatement and Question Generation for Counsellor Chatbot
John Lee | Baikun Liang | Haley Fong

Amidst rising mental health needs in society, virtual agents are increasingly deployed in counselling. In order to give pertinent advice, counsellors must first gain an understanding of the issues at hand by eliciting sharing from the counsellee. It is thus important for the counsellor chatbot to encourage the user to open up and talk. One way to sustain the conversation flow is to acknowledge the counsellee’s key points by restating them, or probing them further with questions. This paper applies models from two closely related NLP tasks — summarization and question generation — to restatement and question generation in the counselling context. We conducted experiments on a manually annotated dataset of Cantonese post-reply pairs on topics related to loneliness, academic anxiety and test anxiety. We obtained the best performance in both restatement and question generation by fine-tuning BertSum, a state-of-the-art summarization model, with the in-domain manual dataset augmented with a large-scale, automatically mined open-domain dataset.

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The Climate Change Debate and Natural Language Processing
Manfred Stede | Ronny Patz

The debate around climate change (CC)—its extent, its causes, and the necessary responses—is intense and of global importance. Yet, in the natural language processing (NLP) community, this domain has so far received little attention. In contrast, it is of enormous prominence in various social science disciplines, and some of that work follows the ”text-as-data” paradigm, seeking to employ quantitative methods for analyzing large amounts of CC-related text. Other research is qualitative in nature and studies details, nuances, actors, and motivations within CC discourses. Coming from both NLP and Political Science, and reviewing key works in both disciplines, we discuss how social science approaches to CC debates can inform advances in text-mining/NLP, and how, in return, NLP can support policy-makers and activists in making sense of large-scale and complex CC discourses across multiple genres, channels, topics, and communities. This is paramount for their ability to make rapid and meaningful impact on the discourse, and for shaping the necessary policy change.

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Cartography of Natural Language Processing for Social Good (NLP4SG): Searching for Definitions, Statistics and White Spots
Paula Fortuna | Laura Pérez-Mayos | Ahmed AbuRa’ed | Juan Soler-Company | Leo Wanner

The range of works that can be considered as developing NLP for social good (NLP4SG) is enormous. While many of them target the identification of hate speech or fake news, there are others that address, e.g., text simplification to alleviate consequences of dyslexia, or coaching strategies to fight depression. However, so far, there is no clear picture of what areas are targeted by NLP4SG, who are the actors, which are the main scenarios and what are the topics that have been left aside. In order to obtain a clearer view in this respect, we first propose a working definition of NLP4SG and identify some primary aspects that are crucial for NLP4SG, including, e.g., areas, ethics, privacy and bias. Then, we draw upon a corpus of around 50,000 articles downloaded from the ACL Anthology. Based on a list of keywords retrieved from the literature and revised in view of the task, we select from this corpus articles that can be considered to be on NLP4SG according to our definition and analyze them in terms of trends along the time line, etc. The result is a map of the current NLP4SG research and insights concerning the white spots on this map.

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Guiding Principles for Participatory Design-inspired Natural Language Processing
Tommaso Caselli | Roberto Cibin | Costanza Conforti | Enrique Encinas | Maurizio Teli

We introduce 9 guiding principles to integrate Participatory Design (PD) methods in the development of Natural Language Processing (NLP) systems. The adoption of PD methods by NLP will help to alleviate issues concerning the development of more democratic, fairer, less-biased technologies to process natural language data. This short paper is the outcome of an ongoing dialogue between designers and NLP experts and adopts a non-standard format following previous work by Traum (2000); Bender (2013); Abzianidze and Bos (2019). Every section is a guiding principle. While principles 1–3 illustrate assumptions and methods that inform community-based PD practices, we used two fictional design scenarios (Encinas and Blythe, 2018), which build on top of situations familiar to the authors, to elicit the identification of the other 6. Principles 4–6 describes the impact of PD methods on the design of NLP systems, targeting two critical aspects: data collection & annotation, and the deployment & evaluation. Finally, principles 7–9 guide a new reflexivity of the NLP research with respect to its context, actors and participants, and aims. We hope this guide will offer inspiration and a road-map to develop a new generation of PD-inspired NLP.

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Theano: A Greek-speaking conversational agent for COVID-19
Nikoletta Ventoura | Kosmas Palios | Yannis Vasilakis | Georgios Paraskevopoulos | Nassos Katsamanis | Vassilis Katsouros

Conversational Agents (CAs) can be a proxy for disseminating information and providing support to the public, especially in times of crisis. CAs can scale to reach larger numbers of end-users than human operators, while they can offer information interactively and engagingly. In this work, we present Theano, a Greek-speaking virtual assistant for COVID-19. Theano presents users with COVID-19 statistics and facts and informs users about the best health practices as well as the latest COVID-19 related guidelines. Additionally, Theano provides support to end-users by helping them self-assess their symptoms and redirecting them to first-line health workers. The relevant, localized information that Theano provides, makes it a valuable tool for combating COVID-19 in Greece. Theano has already conversed with different users in more than 170 different conversations through a web interface as a chatbot and over the phone as a voice bot.

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Are we human, or are we users? The role of natural language processing in human-centric news recommenders that nudge users to diverse content
Myrthe Reuver | Nicolas Mattis | Marijn Sax | Suzan Verberne | Nava Tintarev | Natali Helberger | Judith Moeller | Sanne Vrijenhoek | Antske Fokkens | Wouter van Atteveldt

In this position paper, we present a research agenda and ideas for facilitating exposure to diverse viewpoints in news recommendation. Recommending news from diverse viewpoints is important to prevent potential filter bubble effects in news consumption, and stimulate a healthy democratic debate. To account for the complexity that is inherent to humans as citizens in a democracy, we anticipate (among others) individual-level differences in acceptance of diversity. We connect this idea to techniques in Natural Language Processing, where distributional language models would allow us to place different users and news articles in a multidimensional space based on semantic content, where diversity is operationalized as distance and variance. In this way, we can model individual “latitudes of diversity” for different users, and thus personalize viewpoint diversity in support of a healthy public debate. In addition, we identify technical, ethical and conceptual issues related to our presented ideas. Our investigation describes how NLP can play a central role in diversifying news recommendations.

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Automatic Sentence Simplification in Low Resource Settings for Urdu
Yusra Anees | Sadaf Abdul Rauf

To build automated simplification systems, corpora of complex sentences and their simplified versions is the first step to understand sentence complexity and enable the development of automatic text simplification systems. We present a lexical and syntactically simplified Urdu simplification corpus with a detailed analysis of the various simplification operations and human evaluation of corpus quality. We further analyze our corpora using text readability measures and present a comparison of the original, lexical simplified and syntactically simplified corpora. In addition, we compare our corpus with other existing simplification corpora by building simplification systems and evaluating these systems using BLEU and SARI scores. Our system achieves the highest BLEU score and comparable SARI score in comparison to other systems. We release our simplification corpora for the benefit of the research community.

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Challenges for Information Extraction from Dialogue in Criminal Law
Jenny Hong | Catalin Voss | Christopher Manning

Information extraction and question answering have the potential to introduce a new paradigm for how machine learning is applied to criminal law. Existing approaches generally use tabular data for predictive metrics. An alternative approach is needed for matters of equitable justice, where individuals are judged on a case-by-case basis, in a process involving verbal or written discussion and interpretation of case factors. Such discussions are individualized, but they nonetheless rely on underlying facts. Information extraction can play an important role in surfacing these facts, which are still important to understand. We analyze unsupervised, weakly supervised, and pre-trained models’ ability to extract such factual information from the free-form dialogue of California parole hearings. With a few exceptions, most F1 scores are below 0.85. We use this opportunity to highlight some opportunities for further research for information extraction and question answering. We encourage new developments in NLP to enable analysis and review of legal cases to be done in a post-hoc, not predictive, manner.

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Detecting Hashtag Hijacking for Hashtag Activism
Pooneh Mousavi | Jessica Ouyang

Social media has changed the way we engage in social activities. On Twitter, users can participate in social movements using hashtags such as #MeToo; this is known as hashtag activism. However, while these hashtags can help reshape social norms, they can also be used maliciously by spammers or troll communities for other purposes, such as signal boosting unrelated content, making a dent in a movement, or sharing hate speech. We present a Tweet-level hashtag hijacking detection framework focusing on hashtag activism. Our weakly-supervised framework uses bootstrapping to update itself as new Tweets are posted. Our experiments show that the system adapts to new topics in a social movement, as well as new hijacking strategies, maintaining strong performance over time.

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NLP for Consumer Protection: Battling Illegal Clauses in German Terms and Conditions in Online Shopping
Daniel Braun | Florian Matthes

Online shopping is an ever more important part of the global consumer economy, not just in times of a pandemic. When we place an order online as consumers, we regularly agree to the so-called “Terms and Conditions” (T&C), a contract unilaterally drafted by the seller. Often, consumers do not read these contracts and unwittingly agree to unfavourable and often void terms. Government and non-government organisations (NGOs) for consumer protection battle such terms on behalf of consumers, who often hesitate to take on legal actions themselves. However, the growing number of online shops and a lack of funding makes it increasingly difficult for such organisations to monitor the market effectively. This paper describes how Natural Language Processing (NLP) can be applied to support consumer advocates in their efforts to protect consumers. Together with two NGOs from Germany, we developed an NLP-based application that legally assesses clauses in T&C from German online shops under the European Union’s (EU) jurisdiction. We report that we could achieve an accuracy of 0.9 in the detection of void clauses by fine-tuning a pre-trained German BERT model. The approach is currently used by two NGOs and has already helped to challenge void clauses in T&C.

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A Research Framework for Understanding Education-Occupation Alignment with NLP Techniques
Renzhe Yu | Subhro Das | Sairam Gurajada | Kush Varshney | Hari Raghavan | Carlos Lastra-Anadon

Understanding the gaps between job requirements and university curricula is crucial for improving student success and institutional effectiveness in higher education. In this context, natural language processing (NLP) can be leveraged to generate granular insights into where the gaps are and how they change. This paper proposes a three-dimensional research framework that combines NLP techniques with economic and educational research to quantify the alignment between course syllabi and job postings. We elaborate on key technical details of the framework and further discuss its potential positive impacts on practice, including unveiling the inequalities in and long-term consequences of education-occupation alignment to inform policymakers, and fostering information systems to support students, institutions and employers in the school-to-work pipeline.

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Dialogue Act Classification for Augmentative and Alternative Communication
E. Margaret Perkoff

Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) devices and applications are intended to make it easier for individuals with complex communication needs to participate in conversations. However, these devices have low adoption and retention rates. We review prior work with text recommendation systems that have not been successful in mitigating these problems. To address these gaps, we propose applying Dialogue Act classification to AAC conversations. We evaluated the performance of a state of the art model on a limited AAC dataset that was trained on both AAC and non-AAC datasets. The one trained on AAC (accuracy = 38.6%) achieved better performance than that trained on a non-AAC corpus (accuracy = 34.1%). These results reflect the need to incorporate representative datasets in later experiments. We discuss the need to collect more labeled AAC datasets and propose areas of future work.

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Improving Policing with Natural Language Processing
Anthony Dixon | Daniel Birks

This article explores the potential for Natural Language Processing (NLP) to enable a more effective, prevention focused and less confrontational policing model that has hitherto been too resource consuming to implement at scale. Problem-Oriented Policing (POP) is a potential replacement, at least in part, for traditional policing which adopts a reactive approach, relying heavily on the criminal justice system. By contrast, POP seeks to prevent crime by manipulating the underlying conditions that allow crimes to be committed. Identifying these underlying conditions requires a detailed understanding of crime events - tacit knowledge that is often held by police officers but which can be challenging to derive from structured police data. One potential source of insight exists in unstructured free text data commonly collected by police for the purposes of investigation or administration. Yet police agencies do not typically have the skills or resources to analyse these data at scale. In this article we argue that NLP offers the potential to unlock these unstructured data and by doing so allow police to implement more POP initiatives. However we caution that using NLP models without adequate knowledge may either allow or perpetuate bias within the data potentially leading to unfavourable outcomes.

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Empathy and Hope: Resource Transfer to Model Inter-country Social Media Dynamics
Clay H. Yoo | Shriphani Palakodety | Rupak Sarkar | Ashiqur KhudaBukhsh

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic resulted in significant ramifications for international relations ranging from travel restrictions, global ceasefires, and international vaccine production and sharing agreements. Amidst a wave of infections in India that resulted in a systemic breakdown of healthcare infrastructure, a social welfare organization based in Pakistan offered to procure medical-grade oxygen to assist India - a nation which was involved in four wars with Pakistan in the past few decades. In this paper, we focus on Pakistani Twitter users’ response to the ongoing healthcare crisis in India. While #IndiaNeedsOxygen and #PakistanStandsWithIndia featured among the top-trending hashtags in Pakistan, divisive hashtags such as #EndiaSaySorryToKashmir simultaneously started trending. Against the backdrop of a contentious history including four wars, divisive content of this nature, especially when a country is facing an unprecedented healthcare crisis, fuels further deterioration of relations. In this paper, we define a new task of detecting supportive content and demonstrate that existing NLP for social impact tools can be effectively harnessed for such tasks within a quick turnaround time. We also release the first publicly available data set at the intersection of geopolitical relations and a raging pandemic in the context of India and Pakistan.

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A Speech-enabled Fixed-phrase Translator for Healthcare Accessibility
Pierrette Bouillon | Johanna Gerlach | Jonathan Mutal | Nikos Tsourakis | Hervé Spechbach

In this overview article we describe an application designed to enable communication between health practitioners and patients who do not share a common language, in situations where professional interpreters are not available. Built on the principle of a fixed phrase translator, the application implements different natural language processing (NLP) technologies, such as speech recognition, neural machine translation and text-to-speech to improve usability. Its design allows easy portability to new domains and integration of different types of output for multiple target audiences. Even though BabelDr is far from solving the problem of miscommunication between patients and doctors, it is a clear example of NLP in a real world application designed to help minority groups to communicate in a medical context. It also gives some insights into the relevant criteria for the development of such an application.

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A Grounded Well-being Conversational Agent with Multiple Interaction Modes: Preliminary Results
Xinxin Yan | Ndapa Nakashole

Technologies for enhancing well-being, healthcare vigilance and monitoring are on the rise. However, despite patient interest, such technologies suffer from low adoption. One hypothesis for this limited adoption is loss of human interaction that is central to doctor-patient encounters. In this paper we seek to address this limitation via a conversational agent that adopts one aspect of in-person doctor-patient interactions: A human avatar to facilitate medical grounded question answering. This is akin to the in-person scenario where the doctor may point to the human body or the patient may point to their own body to express their conditions. Additionally, our agent has multiple interaction modes, that may give more options for the patient to use the agent, not just for medical question answering, but also to engage in conversations about general topics and current events. Both the avatar, and the multiple interaction modes could help improve adherence. We present a high level overview of the design of our agent, Marie Bot Wellbeing. We also report implementation details of our early prototype , and present preliminary results.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Natural Language Processing for Programming (NLP4Prog 2021)

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Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Natural Language Processing for Programming (NLP4Prog 2021)
Royi Lachmy | Ziyu Yao | Greg Durrett | Milos Gligoric | Junyi Jessy Li | Ray Mooney | Graham Neubig | Yu Su | Huan Sun | Reut Tsarfaty

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Code to Comment Translation: A Comparative Study on Model Effectiveness & Errors
Junayed Mahmud | Fahim Faisal | Raihan Islam Arnob | Antonios Anastasopoulos | Kevin Moran

Automated source code summarization is a popular software engineering research topic wherein machine translation models are employed to “translate” code snippets into relevant natural language descriptions. Most evaluations of such models are conducted using automatic reference-based metrics. However, given the relatively large semantic gap between programming languages and natural language, we argue that this line of research would benefit from a qualitative investigation into the various error modes of current state-of-the-art models. Therefore, in this work, we perform both a quantitative and qualitative comparison of three recently proposed source code summarization models. In our quantitative evaluation, we compare the models based on the smoothed BLEU-4, METEOR, and ROUGE-L machine translation metrics, and in our qualitative evaluation, we perform a manual open-coding of the most common errors committed by the models when compared to ground truth captions. Our investigation reveals new insights into the relationship between metric-based performance and model prediction errors grounded in an error taxonomy that can be used to drive future research efforts.

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ConTest: A Unit Test Completion Benchmark featuring Context
Johannes Villmow | Jonas Depoix | Adrian Ulges

We introduce CONTEST, a benchmark for NLP-based unit test completion, the task of predicting a test’s assert statements given its setup and focal method, i.e. the method to be tested. ConTest is large-scale (with 365k datapoints). Besides the test code and tested code, it also features context code called by either. We found context to be crucial for accurately predicting assertions. We also introduce baselines based on transformer encoder-decoders, and study the effects of including syntactic information and context. Overall, our models achieve a BLEU score of 38.2, while only generating unparsable code in 1.92% of cases.

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CommitBERT: Commit Message Generation Using Pre-Trained Programming Language Model
Tae Hwan Jung

Commit message is a document that summarizes source code changes in natural language. A good commit message clearly shows the source code changes, so this enhances collaboration between developers. Therefore, our work is to develop a model that automatically writes the commit message. To this end, we release 345K datasets consisting of code modification and commit messages in six programming languages (Python, PHP, Go, Java, JavaScript, and Ruby). Similar to the neural machine translation (NMT) model, using our dataset, we feed the code modification to the encoder input and the commit message to the decoder input and measure the result of the generated commit message with BLEU-4. Also, we propose the following two training methods to improve the result of generating the commit message: (1) A method of preprocessing the input to feed the code modification to the encoder input. (2) A method that uses an initial weight suitable for the code domain to reduce the gap in contextual representation between programming language (PL) and natural language (NL).

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Time-Efficient Code Completion Model for the R Programming Language
Artem Popov | Dmitrii Orekhov | Denis Litvinov | Nikolay Korolev | Gleb Morgachev

In this paper we present a deep learning code completion model for the R language. We introduce several techniques to utilize language modeling based architecture in the code completion task. With these techniques, the model requires low resources, but still achieves high quality. We also present an evaluation dataset for the R language completion task. Our dataset contains multiple autocompletion usage contexts that provides robust validation results. The dataset is publicly available.

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CoTexT: Multi-task Learning with Code-Text Transformer
Long Phan | Hieu Tran | Daniel Le | Hieu Nguyen | James Annibal | Alec Peltekian | Yanfang Ye

We present CoTexT, a pre-trained, transformer-based encoder-decoder model that learns the representative context between natural language (NL) and programming language (PL). Using self-supervision, CoTexT is pre-trained on large programming language corpora to learn a general understanding of language and code. CoTexT supports downstream NL-PL tasks such as code summarizing/documentation, code generation, defect detection, and code debugging. We train CoTexT on different combinations of available PL corpus including both “bimodal” and “unimodal” data. Here, bimodal data is the combination of text and corresponding code snippets, whereas unimodal data is merely code snippets. We first evaluate CoTexT with multi-task learning: we perform Code Summarization on 6 different programming languages and Code Refinement on both small and medium size featured in the CodeXGLUE dataset. We further conduct extensive experiments to investigate CoTexT on other tasks within the CodeXGlue dataset, including Code Generation and Defect Detection. We consistently achieve SOTA results in these tasks, demonstrating the versatility of our models.

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DIRECT : A Transformer-based Model for Decompiled Identifier Renaming
Vikram Nitin | Anthony Saieva | Baishakhi Ray | Gail Kaiser

Decompiling binary executables to high-level code is an important step in reverse engineering scenarios, such as malware analysis and legacy code maintenance. However, the generated high-level code is difficult to understand since the original variable names are lost. In this paper, we leverage transformer models to reconstruct the original variable names from decompiled code. Inherent differences between code and natural language present certain challenges in applying conventional transformer-based architectures to variable name recovery. We propose DIRECT, a novel transformer-based architecture customized specifically for the task at hand. We evaluate our model on a dataset of decompiled functions and find that DIRECT outperforms the previous state-of-the-art model by up to 20%. We also present ablation studies evaluating the impact of each of our modifications. We make the source code of DIRECT available to encourage reproducible research.

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Shellcode_IA32: A Dataset for Automatic Shellcode Generation
Pietro Liguori | Erfan Al-Hossami | Domenico Cotroneo | Roberto Natella | Bojan Cukic | Samira Shaikh

We take the first step to address the task of automatically generating shellcodes, i.e., small pieces of code used as a payload in the exploitation of a software vulnerability, starting from natural language comments. We assemble and release a novel dataset (Shellcode_IA32), consisting of challenging but common assembly instructions with their natural language descriptions. We experiment with standard methods in neural machine translation (NMT) to establish baseline performance levels on this task.

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Reading StackOverflow Encourages Cheating: Adding Question Text Improves Extractive Code Generation
Gabriel Orlanski | Alex Gittens

Answering a programming question with only its title is difficult as salient contextual information is left out. To address this, we present a corpus of over 40,000 StackOverflow question texts to be used in conjunction with the corresponding intents from the CoNaLa dataset (Yin et al., 2018). Using both the intent and the question body, we use BART to establish a baseline BLEU score of 34.35 for this new task. We then find further improvements of 2.8% by combining the mined CoNaLa data with the labeled data to achieve a 35.32 BLEU score. We then evaluate the prior state-of-the-art CoNaLa models with this additional data. We find that our proposed method of using the body and mined data beats that of the previous state-of-the-art by a 71.96% BLEU score. Finally, we perform ablations that prove that BART is an unsupervised multimodal learner and examine its extractive behavior.

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Text-to-SQL in the Wild: A Naturally-Occurring Dataset Based on Stack Exchange Data
Moshe Hazoom | Vibhor Malik | Ben Bogin

Most available semantic parsing datasets, comprising of pairs of natural utterances and logical forms, were collected solely for the purpose of training and evaluation of natural language understanding systems. As a result, they do not contain any of the richness and variety of natural-occurring utterances, where humans ask about data they need or are curious about. In this work, we release SEDE, a dataset with 12,023 pairs of utterances and SQL queries collected from real usage on the Stack Exchange website. We show that these pairs contain a variety of real-world challenges which were rarely reflected so far in any other semantic parsing dataset, propose an evaluation metric based on comparison of partial query clauses that is more suitable for real-world queries, and conduct experiments with strong baselines, showing a large gap between the performance on SEDE compared to other common datasets.

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Bag-of-Words Baselines for Semantic Code Search
Xinyu Zhang | Ji Xin | Andrew Yates | Jimmy Lin

The task of semantic code search is to retrieve code snippets from a source code corpus based on an information need expressed in natural language. The semantic gap between natural language and programming languages has for long been regarded as one of the most significant obstacles to the effectiveness of keyword-based information retrieval (IR) methods. It is a common assumption that “traditional” bag-of-words IR methods are poorly suited for semantic code search: our work empirically investigates this assumption. Specifically, we examine the effectiveness of two traditional IR methods, namely BM25 and RM3, on the CodeSearchNet Corpus, which consists of natural language queries paired with relevant code snippets. We find that the two keyword-based methods outperform several pre-BERT neural models. We also compare several code-specific data pre-processing strategies and find that specialized tokenization improves effectiveness.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Natural Language Processing for Medical Conversations

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Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Natural Language Processing for Medical Conversations
Chaitanya Shivade | Rashmi Gangadharaiah | Spandana Gella | Sandeep Konam | Shaoqing Yuan | Yi Zhang | Parminder Bhatia | Byron Wallace

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Would you like to tell me more? Generating a corpus of psychotherapy dialogues
Seyed Mahed Mousavi | Alessandra Cervone | Morena Danieli | Giuseppe Riccardi

The acquisition of a dialogue corpus is a key step in the process of training a dialogue model. In this context, corpora acquisitions have been designed either for open-domain information retrieval or slot-filling (e.g. restaurant booking) tasks. However, there has been scarce research in the problem of collecting personal conversations with users over a long period of time. In this paper we focus on the types of dialogues that are required for mental health applications. One of these types is the follow-up dialogue that a psychotherapist would initiate in reviewing the progress of a Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) intervention. The elicitation of the dialogues is achieved through textual stimuli presented to dialogue writers. We propose an automatic algorithm that generates textual stimuli from personal narratives collected during psychotherapy interventions. The automatically generated stimuli are presented as a seed to dialogue writers following principled guidelines. We analyze the linguistic quality of the collected corpus and compare the performances of psychotherapists and non-expert dialogue writers. Moreover, we report the human evaluation of a corpus-based response-selection model.

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Towards Automating Medical Scribing : Clinic Visit Dialogue2Note Sentence Alignment and Snippet Summarization
Wen-wai Yim | Meliha Yetisgen

Medical conversations from patient visits are routinely summarized into clinical notes for documentation of clinical care. The automatic creation of clinical note is particularly challenging given that it requires summarization over spoken language and multiple speaker turns; as well, clinical notes include highly technical semi-structured text. In this paper, we describe our corpus creation method and baseline systems for two NLP tasks, clinical dialogue2note sentence alignment and clinical dialogue2note snippet summarization. These two systems, as well as other models created from such a corpus, may be incorporated as parts of an overall end-to-end clinical note generation system.

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Gathering Information and Engaging the User ComBot: A Task-Based, Serendipitous Dialog Model for Patient-Doctor Interactions
Anna Liednikova | Philippe Jolivet | Alexandre Durand-Salmon | Claire Gardent

We focus on dialog models in the context of clinical studies where the goal is to help gather, in addition to the close information collected based on a questionnaire, serendipitous information that is medically relevant. To promote user engagement and address this dual goal (collecting both a predefined set of data points and more informal information about the state of the patients), we introduce an ensemble model made of three bots: a task-based, a follow-up and a social bot. We introduce a generic method for developing follow-up bots. We compare different ensemble configurations and we show that the combination of the three bots (i) provides a better basis for collecting information than just the information seeking bot and (ii) collects information in a more user-friendly, more efficient manner that an ensemble model combining the information seeking and the social bot.

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Automatic Speech-Based Checklist for Medical Simulations
Sapir Gershov | Yaniv Ringel | Erez Dvir | Tzvia Tsirilman | Elad Ben Zvi | Sandra Braun | Aeyal Raz | Shlomi Laufer

Medical simulators provide a controlled environment for training and assessing clinical skills. However, as an assessment platform, it requires the presence of an experienced examiner to provide performance feedback, commonly preformed using a task specific checklist. This makes the assessment process inefficient and expensive. Furthermore, this evaluation method does not provide medical practitioners the opportunity for independent training. Ideally, the process of filling the checklist should be done by a fully-aware objective system, capable of recognizing and monitoring the clinical performance. To this end, we have developed an autonomous and a fully automatic speech-based checklist system, capable of objectively identifying and validating anesthesia residents’ actions in a simulation environment. Based on the analyzed results, our system is capable of recognizing most of the tasks in the checklist: F1 score of 0.77 for all of the tasks, and F1 score of 0.79 for the verbal tasks. Developing an audio-based system will improve the experience of a wide range of simulation platforms. Furthermore, in the future, this approach may be implemented in the operation room and emergency room. This could facilitate the development of automatic assistive technologies for these domains.

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Assertion Detection in Clinical Notes: Medical Language Models to the Rescue?
Betty van Aken | Ivana Trajanovska | Amy Siu | Manuel Mayrdorfer | Klemens Budde | Alexander Loeser

In order to provide high-quality care, health professionals must efficiently identify the presence, possibility, or absence of symptoms, treatments and other relevant entities in free-text clinical notes. Such is the task of assertion detection - to identify the assertion class (present, possible, absent) of an entity based on textual cues in unstructured text. We evaluate state-of-the-art medical language models on the task and show that they outperform the baselines in all three classes. As transferability is especially important in the medical domain we further study how the best performing model behaves on unseen data from two other medical datasets. For this purpose we introduce a newly annotated set of 5,000 assertions for the publicly available MIMIC-III dataset. We conclude with an error analysis that reveals situations in which the models still go wrong and points towards future research directions.

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Extracting Appointment Spans from Medical Conversations
Nimshi Venkat Meripo | Sandeep Konam

Extracting structured information from medical conversations can reduce the documentation burden for doctors and help patients follow through with their care plan. In this paper, we introduce a novel task of extracting appointment spans from medical conversations. We frame this task as a sequence tagging problem and focus on extracting spans for appointment reason and time. However, annotating medical conversations is expensive, time-consuming, and requires considerable domain expertise. Hence, we propose to leverage weak supervision approaches, namely incomplete supervision, inaccurate supervision, and a hybrid supervision approach and evaluate both generic and domain-specific, ELMo, and BERT embeddings using sequence tagging models. The best performing model is the domain-specific BERT variant using weak hybrid supervision and obtains an F1 score of 79.32.

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Building blocks of a task-oriented dialogue system in the healthcare domain
Heereen Shim | Dietwig Lowet | Stijn Luca | Bart Vanrumste

There has been significant progress in dialogue systems research. However, dialogue systems research in the healthcare domain is still in its infancy. In this paper, we analyse recent studies and outline three building blocks of a task-oriented dialogue system in the healthcare domain: i) privacy-preserving data collection; ii) medical knowledge-grounded dialogue management; and iii) human-centric evaluations. To this end, we propose a framework for developing a dialogue system and show preliminary results of simulated dialogue data generation by utilising expert knowledge and crowd-sourcing.

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Joint Summarization-Entailment Optimization for Consumer Health Question Understanding
Khalil Mrini | Franck Dernoncourt | Walter Chang | Emilia Farcas | Ndapa Nakashole

Understanding the intent of medical questions asked by patients, or Consumer Health Questions, is an essential skill for medical Conversational AI systems. We propose a novel data-augmented and simple joint learning approach combining question summarization and Recognizing Question Entailment (RQE) in the medical domain. Our data augmentation approach enables to use just one dataset for joint learning. We show improvements on both tasks across four biomedical datasets in accuracy (+8%), ROUGE-1 (+2.5%) and human evaluation scores. Human evaluation shows joint learning generates faithful and informative summaries. Finally, we release our code, the two question summarization datasets extracted from a large-scale medical dialogue dataset, as well as our augmented datasets.

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Medically Aware GPT-3 as a Data Generator for Medical Dialogue Summarization
Bharath Chintagunta | Namit Katariya | Xavier Amatriain | Anitha Kannan

In medical dialogue summarization, summaries must be coherent and must capture all the medically relevant information in the dialogue. However, learning effective models for summarization require large amounts of labeled data which is especially hard to obtain. We present an algorithm to create synthetic training data with an explicit focus on capturing medically relevant information. We utilize GPT-3 as the backbone of our algorithm and scale 210 human labeled examples to yield results comparable to using 6400 human labeled examples (~30x) leveraging low-shot learning and an ensemble method. In detailed experiments, we show that this approach produces high quality training data that can further be combined with human labeled data to get summaries that are strongly preferable to those produced by models trained on human data alone both in terms of medical accuracy and coherency.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Narrative Understanding

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Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Narrative Understanding
Nader Akoury | Faeze Brahman | Snigdha Chaturvedi | Elizabeth Clark | Mohit Iyyer | Lara J. Martin

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Hierarchical Encoders for Modeling and Interpreting Screenplays
Gayatri Bhat | Avneesh Saluja | Melody Dye | Jan Florjanczyk

While natural language understanding of long-form documents remains an open challenge, such documents often contain structural information that can inform the design of models encoding them. Movie scripts are an example of such richly structured text – scripts are segmented into scenes, which decompose into dialogue and descriptive components. In this work, we propose a neural architecture to encode this structure, which performs robustly on two multi-label tag classification tasks without using handcrafted features. We add a layer of insight by augmenting the encoder with an unsupervised ‘interpretability’ module, which can be used to extract and visualize narrative trajectories. Though this work specifically tackles screenplays, we discuss how the underlying approach can be generalized to a range of structured documents.

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FanfictionNLP: A Text Processing Pipeline for Fanfiction
Michael Yoder | Sopan Khosla | Qinlan Shen | Aakanksha Naik | Huiming Jin | Hariharan Muralidharan | Carolyn Rosé

Fanfiction presents an opportunity as a data source for research in NLP, education, and social science. However, answering specific research questions with this data is difficult, since fanfiction contains more diverse writing styles than formal fiction. We present a text processing pipeline for fanfiction, with a focus on identifying text associated with characters. The pipeline includes modules for character identification and coreference, as well as the attribution of quotes and narration to those characters. Additionally, the pipeline contains a novel approach to character coreference that uses knowledge from quote attribution to resolve pronouns within quotes. For each module, we evaluate the effectiveness of various approaches on 10 annotated fanfiction stories. This pipeline outperforms tools developed for formal fiction on the tasks of character coreference and quote attribution

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Learning Similarity between Movie Characters and Its Potential Implications on Understanding Human Experiences
Zhilin Wang | Weizhe Lin | Xiaodong Wu

While many different aspects of human experiences have been studied by the NLP community, none has captured its full richness. We propose a new task to capture this richness based on an unlikely setting: movie characters. We sought to capture theme-level similarities between movie characters that were community-curated into 20,000 themes. By introducing a two-step approach that balances performance and efficiency, we managed to achieve 9-27% improvement over recent paragraph-embedding based methods. Finally, we demonstrate how the thematic information learnt from movie characters can potentially be used to understand themes in the experience of people, as indicated on Reddit posts.

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Document-level Event Extraction with Efficient End-to-end Learning of Cross-event Dependencies
Kung-Hsiang Huang | Nanyun Peng

Fully understanding narratives often requires identifying events in the context of whole documents and modeling the event relations. However, document-level event extraction is a challenging task as it requires the extraction of event and entity coreference, and capturing arguments that span across different sentences. Existing works on event extraction usually confine on extracting events from single sentences, which fail to capture the relationships between the event mentions at the scale of a document, as well as the event arguments that appear in a different sentence than the event trigger. In this paper, we propose an end-to-end model leveraging Deep Value Networks (DVN), a structured prediction algorithm, to efficiently capture cross-event dependencies for document-level event extraction. Experimental results show that our approach achieves comparable performance to CRF-based models on ACE05, while enjoys significantly higher computational efficiency.

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Gender and Representation Bias in GPT-3 Generated Stories
Li Lucy | David Bamman

Using topic modeling and lexicon-based word similarity, we find that stories generated by GPT-3 exhibit many known gender stereotypes. Generated stories depict different topics and descriptions depending on GPT-3’s perceived gender of the character in a prompt, with feminine characters more likely to be associated with family and appearance, and described as less powerful than masculine characters, even when associated with high power verbs in a prompt. Our study raises questions on how one can avoid unintended social biases when using large language models for storytelling.

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Transformer-based Screenplay Summarization Using Augmented Learning Representation with Dialogue Information
Myungji Lee | Hongseok Kwon | Jaehun Shin | WonKee Lee | Baikjin Jung | Jong-Hyeok Lee

Screenplay summarization is the task of extracting informative scenes from a screenplay. The screenplay contains turning point (TP) events that change the story direction and thus define the story structure decisively. Accordingly, this task can be defined as the TP identification task. We suggest using dialogue information, one attribute of screenplays, motivated by previous work that discovered that TPs have a relation with dialogues appearing in screenplays. To teach a model this characteristic, we add a dialogue feature to the input embedding. Moreover, in an attempt to improve the model architecture of previous studies, we replace LSTM with Transformer. We observed that the model can better identify TPs in a screenplay by using dialogue information and that a model adopting Transformer outperforms LSTM-based models.

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Plug-and-Blend: A Framework for Controllable Story Generation with Blended Control Codes
Zhiyu Lin | Mark Riedl

We describe a Plug-and-Play controllable language generation framework, Plug-and-Blend, that allows a human user to input multiple control codes (topics). In the context of automated story generation, this allows a human user lose or fine grained control of the topics that will appear in the generated story, and can even allow for overlapping, blended topics. We show that our framework, working with different generation models, controls the generation towards given continuous-weighted control codes while keeping the generated sentences fluent, demonstrating strong blending capability.

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Automatic Story Generation: Challenges and Attempts
Amal Alabdulkarim | Siyan Li | Xiangyu Peng

Automated storytelling has long captured the attention of researchers for the ubiquity of narratives in everyday life. The best human-crafted stories exhibit coherent plot, strong characters, and adherence to genres, attributes that current states-of-the-art still struggle to produce, even using transformer architectures. In this paper, we analyze works in story generation that utilize machine learning approaches to (1) address story generation controllability, (2) incorporate commonsense knowledge, (3) infer reasonable character actions, and (4) generate creative language.

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Fabula Entropy Indexing: Objective Measures of Story Coherence
Louis Castricato | Spencer Frazier | Jonathan Balloch | Mark Riedl

Automated story generation remains a difficult area of research because it lacks strong objective measures. Generated stories may be linguistically sound, but in many cases suffer poor narrative coherence required for a compelling, logically-sound story. To address this, we present Fabula Entropy Indexing (FEI), an evaluation method to assess story coherence by measuring the degree to which human participants agree with each other when answering true/false questions about stories. We devise two theoretically grounded measures of reader question-answering entropy, the entropy of world coherence (EWC), and the entropy of transitional coherence (ETC), focusing on global and local coherence, respectively. We evaluate these metrics by testing them on human-written stories and comparing against the same stories that have been corrupted to introduce incoherencies. We show that in these controlled studies, our entropy indices provide a reliable objective measure of story coherence.

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Towards a Model-Theoretic View of Narratives
Louis Castricato | Stella Biderman | David Thue | Rogelio Cardona-Rivera

In this paper, we propose the beginnings of a formal framework for modeling narrative qua narrative. Our framework affords the ability to discuss key qualities of stories and their communication, including the flow of information from a Narrator to a Reader, the evolution of a Reader’s story model over time, and Reader uncertainty. We demonstrate its applicability to computational narratology by giving explicit algorithms for measuring the accuracy with which information was conveyed to the Reader, along with two novel measurements of story coherence.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Privacy in Natural Language Processing

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Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Privacy in Natural Language Processing
Oluwaseyi Feyisetan | Sepideh Ghanavati | Shervin Malmasi | Patricia Thaine

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Understanding Unintended Memorization in Language Models Under Federated Learning
Om Dipakbhai Thakkar | Swaroop Ramaswamy | Rajiv Mathews | Francoise Beaufays

Recent works have shown that language models (LMs), e.g., for next word prediction (NWP), have a tendency to memorize rare or unique sequences in the training data. Since useful LMs are often trained on sensitive data, it is critical to identify and mitigate such unintended memorization. Federated Learning (FL) has emerged as a novel framework for large-scale distributed learning tasks. It differs in many aspects from the well-studied central learning setting where all the data is stored at the central server, and minibatch stochastic gradient descent is used to conduct training. This work is motivated by our observation that NWP models trained under FL exhibited remarkably less propensity to such memorization compared to the central learning setting. Thus, we initiate a formal study to understand the effect of different components of FL on unintended memorization in trained NWP models. Our results show that several differing components of FL play an important role in reducing unintended memorization. First, we discover that the clustering of data according to users—which happens by design in FL—has the most significant effect in reducing such memorization. Using the Federated Averaging optimizer with larger effective minibatch sizes for training causes a further reduction. We also demonstrate that training in FL with a user-level differential privacy guarantee results in models that can provide high utility while being resilient to memorizing out-of-distribution phrases with thousands of insertions across over a hundred users in the training set.

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On a Utilitarian Approach to Privacy Preserving Text Generation
Zekun Xu | Abhinav Aggarwal | Oluwaseyi Feyisetan | Nathanael Teissier

Differentially-private mechanisms for text generation typically add carefully calibrated noise to input words and use the nearest neighbor to the noised input as the output word. When the noise is small in magnitude, these mechanisms are susceptible to reconstruction of the original sensitive text. This is because the nearest neighbor to the noised input is likely to be the original input. To mitigate this empirical privacy risk, we propose a novel class of differentially private mechanisms that parameterizes the nearest neighbor selection criterion in traditional mechanisms. Motivated by Vickrey auction, where only the second highest price is revealed and the highest price is kept private, we balance the choice between the first and the second nearest neighbors in the proposed class of mechanisms using a tuning parameter. This parameter is selected by empirically solving a constrained optimization problem for maximizing utility, while maintaining the desired privacy guarantees. We argue that this empirical measurement framework can be used to align different mechanisms along a common benchmark for their privacy-utility tradeoff, particularly when different distance metrics are used to calibrate the amount of noise added. Our experiments on real text classification datasets show up to 50% improvement in utility compared to the existing state-of-the-art with the same empirical privacy guarantee.

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Learning and Evaluating a Differentially Private Pre-trained Language Model
Shlomo Hoory | Amir Feder | Avichai Tendler | Alon Cohen | Sofia Erell | Itay Laish | Hootan Nakhost | Uri Stemmer | Ayelet Benjamini | Avinatan Hassidim | Yossi Matias

Contextual language models have led to significantly better results on a plethora of language understanding tasks, especially when pre-trained on the same data as the downstream task. While this additional pre-training usually improves performance, it can lead to information leakage and therefore risks the privacy of individuals mentioned in the training data. One method to guarantee the privacy of such individuals is to train a differentially-private model, but this usually comes at the expense of model performance. Moreover, it is hard to tell given a privacy parameter 𝜖 what was the effect on the trained representation. In this work we aim to guide future practitioners and researchers on how to improve privacy while maintaining good model performance. We demonstrate how to train a differentially-private pre-trained language model (i.e., BERT) with a privacy guarantee of 𝜖=1 and with only a small degradation in performance. We experiment on a dataset of clinical notes with a model trained on a target entity extraction task, and compare it to a similar model trained without differential privacy. Finally, we present experiments showing how to interpret the differentially-private representation and understand the information lost and maintained in this process.

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An Investigation towards Differentially Private Sequence Tagging in a Federated Framework
Abhik Jana | Chris Biemann

To build machine learning-based applications for sensitive domains like medical, legal, etc. where the digitized text contains private information, anonymization of text is required for preserving privacy. Sequence tagging, e.g. as done in Named Entity Recognition (NER) can help to detect private information. However, to train sequence tagging models, a sufficient amount of labeled data are required but for privacy-sensitive domains, such labeled data also can not be shared directly. In this paper, we investigate the applicability of a privacy-preserving framework for sequence tagging tasks, specifically NER. Hence, we analyze a framework for the NER task, which incorporates two levels of privacy protection. Firstly, we deploy a federated learning (FL) framework where the labeled data are not shared with the centralized server as well as the peer clients. Secondly, we apply differential privacy (DP) while the models are being trained in each client instance. While both privacy measures are suitable for privacy-aware models, their combination results in unstable models. To our knowledge, this is the first study of its kind on privacy-aware sequence tagging models.

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A Privacy-Preserving Approach to Extraction of Personal Information through Automatic Annotation and Federated Learning
Rajitha Hathurusinghe | Isar Nejadgholi | Miodrag Bolic

We curated WikiPII, an automatically labeled dataset composed of Wikipedia biography pages, annotated for personal information extraction. Although automatic annotation can lead to a high degree of label noise, it is an inexpensive process and can generate large volumes of annotated documents. We trained a BERT-based NER model with WikiPII and showed that with an adequately large training dataset, the model can significantly decrease the cost of manual information extraction, despite the high level of label noise. In a similar approach, organizations can leverage text mining techniques to create customized annotated datasets from their historical data without sharing the raw data for human annotation. Also, we explore collaborative training of NER models through federated learning when the annotation is noisy. Our results suggest that depending on the level of trust to the ML operator and the volume of the available data, distributed training can be an effective way of training a personal information identifier in a privacy-preserved manner. Research material is available at https://github.com/ratmcu/wikipiifed.

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Using Confidential Data for Domain Adaptation of Neural Machine Translation
Sohyung Kim | Arianna Bisazza | Fatih Turkmen

We study the problem of domain adaptation in Neural Machine Translation (NMT) when domain-specific data cannot be shared due to confidentiality or copyright issues. As a first step, we propose to fragment data into phrase pairs and use a random sample to fine-tune a generic NMT model instead of the full sentences. Despite the loss of long segments for the sake of confidentiality protection, we find that NMT quality can considerably benefit from this adaptation, and that further gains can be obtained with a simple tagging technique.

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Private Text Classification with Convolutional Neural Networks
Samuel Adams | David Melanson | Martine De Cock

Text classifiers are regularly applied to personal texts, leaving users of these classifiers vulnerable to privacy breaches. We propose a solution for privacy-preserving text classification that is based on Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) and Secure Multiparty Computation (MPC). Our method enables the inference of a class label for a personal text in such a way that (1) the owner of the personal text does not have to disclose their text to anyone in an unencrypted manner, and (2) the owner of the text classifier does not have to reveal the trained model parameters to the text owner or to anyone else. To demonstrate the feasibility of our protocol for practical private text classification, we implemented it in the PyTorch-based MPC framework CrypTen, using a well-known additive secret sharing scheme in the honest-but-curious setting. We test the runtime of our privacy-preserving text classifier, which is fast enough to be used in practice.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on Representation Learning for NLP (RepL4NLP-2021)

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Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on Representation Learning for NLP (RepL4NLP-2021)
Anna Rogers | Iacer Calixto | Ivan Vulić | Naomi Saphra | Nora Kassner | Oana-Maria Camburu | Trapit Bansal | Vered Shwartz

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Improving Cross-lingual Text Classification with Zero-shot Instance-Weighting
Irene Li | Prithviraj Sen | Huaiyu Zhu | Yunyao Li | Dragomir Radev

Cross-lingual text classification (CLTC) is a challenging task made even harder still due to the lack of labeled data in low-resource languages. In this paper, we propose zero-shot instance-weighting, a general model-agnostic zero-shot learning framework for improving CLTC by leveraging source instance weighting. It adds a module on top of pre-trained language models for similarity computation of instance weights, thus aligning each source instance to the target language. During training, the framework utilizes gradient descent that is weighted by instance weights to update parameters. We evaluate this framework over seven target languages on three fundamental tasks and show its effectiveness and extensibility, by improving on F1 score up to 4% in single-source transfer and 8% in multi-source transfer. To the best of our knowledge, our method is the first to apply instance weighting in zero-shot CLTC. It is simple yet effective and easily extensible into multi-source transfer.

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Probing Multilingual Language Models for Discourse
Murathan Kurfalı | Robert Östling

Pre-trained multilingual language models have become an important building block in multilingual Natural Language Processing. In the present paper, we investigate a range of such models to find out how well they transfer discourse-level knowledge across languages. This is done with a systematic evaluation on a broader set of discourse-level tasks than has been previously been assembled. We find that the XLM-RoBERTa family of models consistently show the best performance, by simultaneously being good monolingual models and degrading relatively little in a zero-shot setting. Our results also indicate that model distillation may hurt the ability of cross-lingual transfer of sentence representations, while language dissimilarity at most has a modest effect. We hope that our test suite, covering 5 tasks with a total of 22 languages in 10 distinct families, will serve as a useful evaluation platform for multilingual performance at and beyond the sentence level.

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Comprehension Based Question Answering using Bloom’s Taxonomy
Pritish Sahu | Michael Cogswell | Ajay Divakaran | Sara Rutherford-Quach

Current pre-trained language models have lots of knowledge, but a more limited ability to use that knowledge. Bloom’s Taxonomy helps educators teach children how to use knowledge by categorizing comprehension skills, so we use it to analyze and improve the comprehension skills of large pre-trained language models. Our experiments focus on zero-shot question answering, using the taxonomy to provide proximal context that helps the model answer questions by being relevant to those questions. We show targeting context in this manner improves performance across 4 popular common sense question answer datasets.

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Larger-Scale Transformers for Multilingual Masked Language Modeling
Naman Goyal | Jingfei Du | Myle Ott | Giri Anantharaman | Alexis Conneau

Recent work has demonstrated the effectiveness of cross-lingual language model pretraining for cross-lingual understanding. In this study, we present the results of two larger multilingual masked language models, with 3.5B and 10.7B parameters. Our two new models dubbed and outperform XLM-R by 1.8% and 2.4% average accuracy on XNLI. Our model also outperforms the RoBERTa-Large model on several English tasks of the GLUE benchmark by 0.3% on average while handling 99 more languages. This suggests larger capacity models for language understanding may obtain strong performance on high-resource languages while greatly improving low-resource languages. We make our code and models publicly available.

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Learning Sparse Sentence Encoding without Supervision: An Exploration of Sparsity in Variational Autoencoders
Victor Prokhorov | Yingzhen Li | Ehsan Shareghi | Nigel Collier

It has been long known that sparsity is an effective inductive bias for learning efficient representation of data in vectors with fixed dimensionality, and it has been explored in many areas of representation learning. Of particular interest to this work is the investigation of the sparsity within the VAE framework which has been explored a lot in the image domain, but has been lacking even a basic level of exploration in NLP. Additionally, NLP is also lagging behind in terms of learning sparse representations of large units of text e.g., sentences. We use the VAEs that induce sparse latent representations of large units of text to address the aforementioned shortcomings. First, we move in this direction by measuring the success of unsupervised state-of-the-art (SOTA) and other strong VAE-based sparsification baselines for text and propose a hierarchical sparse VAE model to address the stability issue of SOTA. Then, we look at the implications of sparsity on text classification across 3 datasets, and highlight a link between performance of sparse latent representations on downstream tasks and its ability to encode task-related information.

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Temporal-aware Language Representation Learning From Crowdsourced Labels
Yang Hao | Xiao Zhai | Wenbiao Ding | Zitao Liu

Learning effective language representations from crowdsourced labels is crucial for many real-world machine learning tasks. A challenging aspect of this problem is that the quality of crowdsourced labels suffer high intra- and inter-observer variability. Since the high-capacity deep neural networks can easily memorize all disagreements among crowdsourced labels, directly applying existing supervised language representation learning algorithms may yield suboptimal solutions. In this paper, we propose TACMA, a temporal-aware language representation learning heuristic for crowdsourced labels with multiple annotators. The proposed approach (1) explicitly models the intra-observer variability with attention mechanism; (2) computes and aggregates per-sample confidence scores from multiple workers to address the inter-observer disagreements. The proposed heuristic is extremely easy to implement in around 5 lines of code. The proposed heuristic is evaluated on four synthetic and four real-world data sets. The results show that our approach outperforms a wide range of state-of-the-art baselines in terms of prediction accuracy and AUC. To encourage the reproducible results, we make our code publicly available at https://github.com/CrowdsourcingMining/TACMA.

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Structure-aware Sentence Encoder in Bert-Based Siamese Network
Qiwei Peng | David Weir | Julie Weeds

Recently, impressive performance on various natural language understanding tasks has been achieved by explicitly incorporating syntax and semantic information into pre-trained models, such as BERT and RoBERTa. However, this approach depends on problem-specific fine-tuning, and as widely noted, BERT-like models exhibit weak performance, and are inefficient, when applied to unsupervised similarity comparison tasks. Sentence-BERT (SBERT) has been proposed as a general-purpose sentence embedding method, suited to both similarity comparison and downstream tasks. In this work, we show that by incorporating structural information into SBERT, the resulting model outperforms SBERT and previous general sentence encoders on unsupervised semantic textual similarity (STS) datasets and transfer classification tasks.

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Preserving Cross-Linguality of Pre-trained Models via Continual Learning
Zihan Liu | Genta Indra Winata | Andrea Madotto | Pascale Fung

Recently, fine-tuning pre-trained language models (e.g., multilingual BERT) to downstream cross-lingual tasks has shown promising results. However, the fine-tuning process inevitably changes the parameters of the pre-trained model and weakens its cross-lingual ability, which leads to sub-optimal performance. To alleviate this problem, we leverage continual learning to preserve the original cross-lingual ability of the pre-trained model when we fine-tune it to downstream tasks. The experimental result shows that our fine-tuning methods can better preserve the cross-lingual ability of the pre-trained model in a sentence retrieval task. Our methods also achieve better performance than other fine-tuning baselines on the zero-shot cross-lingual part-of-speech tagging and named entity recognition tasks.

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Text Style Transfer: Leveraging a Style Classifier on Entangled Latent Representations
Xiaoyan Li | Sun Sun | Yunli Wang

Learning a good latent representation is essential for text style transfer, which generates a new sentence by changing the attributes of a given sentence while preserving its content. Most previous works adopt disentangled latent representation learning to realize style transfer. We propose a novel text style transfer algorithm with entangled latent representation, and introduce a style classifier that can regulate the latent structure and transfer style. Moreover, our algorithm for style transfer applies to both single-attribute and multi-attribute transfer. Extensive experimental results show that our method generally outperforms state-of-the-art approaches.

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Inductively Representing Out-of-Knowledge-Graph Entities by Optimal Estimation Under Translational Assumptions
Damai Dai | Hua Zheng | Fuli Luo | Pengcheng Yang | Tianyu Liu | Zhifang Sui | Baobao Chang

Conventional Knowledge Graph Completion (KGC) assumes that all test entities appear during training. However, in real-world scenarios, Knowledge Graphs (KG) evolve fast with out-of-knowledge-graph (OOKG) entities added frequently, and we need to efficiently represent these entities. Most existing Knowledge Graph Embedding (KGE) methods cannot represent OOKG entities without costly retraining on the whole KG. To enhance efficiency, we propose a simple and effective method that inductively represents OOKG entities by their optimal estimation under translational assumptions. Moreover, given pretrained embeddings of the in-knowledge-graph (IKG) entities, our method even needs no additional learning. Experimental results on two KGC tasks with OOKG entities show that our method outperforms the previous methods by a large margin with higher efficiency.

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Revisiting Pretraining with Adapters
Seungwon Kim | Alex Shum | Nathan Susanj | Jonathan Hilgart

Pretrained language models have served as the backbone for many state-of-the-art NLP results. These models are large and expensive to train. Recent work suggests that continued pretraining on task-specific data is worth the effort as pretraining leads to improved performance on downstream tasks. We explore alternatives to full-scale task-specific pretraining of language models through the use of adapter modules, a parameter-efficient approach to transfer learning. We find that adapter-based pretraining is able to achieve comparable results to task-specific pretraining while using a fraction of the overall trainable parameters. We further explore direct use of adapters without pretraining and find that the direct fine-tuning performs mostly on par with pretrained adapter models, contradicting previously proposed benefits of continual pretraining in full pretraining fine-tuning strategies. Lastly, we perform an ablation study on task-adaptive pretraining to investigate how different hyperparameter settings can change the effectiveness of the pretraining.

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Knodle: Modular Weakly Supervised Learning with PyTorch
Anastasiia Sedova | Andreas Stephan | Marina Speranskaya | Benjamin Roth

Strategies for improving the training and prediction quality of weakly supervised machine learning models vary in how much they are tailored to a specific task or integrated with a specific model architecture. In this work, we introduce Knodle, a software framework that treats weak data annotations, deep learning models, and methods for improving weakly supervised training as separate, modular components. This modularization gives the training process access to fine-grained information such as data set characteristics, matches of heuristic rules, or elements of the deep learning model ultimately used for prediction. Hence, our framework can encompass a wide range of training methods for improving weak supervision, ranging from methods that only look at correlations of rules and output classes (independently of the machine learning model trained with the resulting labels), to those that harness the interplay of neural networks and weakly labeled data. We illustrate the benchmarking potential of the framework with a performance comparison of several reference implementations on a selection of datasets that are already available in Knodle.

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X2Parser: Cross-Lingual and Cross-Domain Framework for Task-Oriented Compositional Semantic Parsing
Zihan Liu | Genta Indra Winata | Peng Xu | Pascale Fung

Task-oriented compositional semantic parsing (TCSP) handles complex nested user queries and serves as an essential component of virtual assistants. Current TCSP models rely on numerous training data to achieve decent performance but fail to generalize to low-resource target languages or domains. In this paper, we present X2Parser, a transferable Cross-lingual and Cross-domain Parser for TCSP. Unlike previous models that learn to generate the hierarchical representations for nested intents and slots, we propose to predict intents and slots separately and cast both prediction tasks into sequence labeling problems. After that, we further propose a fertility-based slot predictor that first learns to detect the number of labels for each token, and then predicts the slot types. Experimental results illustrate that our model can significantly outperform existing strong baselines in cross-lingual and cross-domain settings, and our model can also achieve a good generalization ability on target languages of target domains. Furthermore, we show that our model can reduce the latency by up to 66% compared to the generation-based model.

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Unsupervised Representation Disentanglement of Text: An Evaluation on Synthetic Datasets
Lan Zhang | Victor Prokhorov | Ehsan Shareghi

To highlight the challenges of achieving representation disentanglement for text domain in an unsupervised setting, in this paper we select a representative set of successfully applied models from the image domain. We evaluate these models on 6 disentanglement metrics, as well as on downstream classification tasks and homotopy. To facilitate the evaluation, we propose two synthetic datasets with known generative factors. Our experiments highlight the existing gap in the text domain and illustrate that certain elements such as representation sparsity (as an inductive bias), or representation coupling with the decoder could impact disentanglement. To the best of our knowledge, our work is the first attempt on the intersection of unsupervised representation disentanglement and text, and provides the experimental framework and datasets for examining future developments in this direction.

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Learn The Big Picture: Representation Learning for Clustering
Sumanta Kashyapi | Laura Dietz

Existing supervised models for text clustering find it difficult to directly optimize for clustering results. This is because clustering is a discrete process and it is difficult to estimate meaningful gradient of any discrete function that can drive gradient based optimization algorithms. So, existing supervised clustering algorithms indirectly optimize for some continuous function that approximates the clustering process. We propose a scalable training strategy that directly optimizes for a discrete clustering metric. We train a BERT-based embedding model using our method and evaluate it on two publicly available datasets. We show that our method outperforms another BERT-based embedding model employing Triplet loss and other unsupervised baselines. This suggests that optimizing directly for the clustering outcome indeed yields better representations suitable for clustering.

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Probing Cross-Modal Representations in Multi-Step Relational Reasoning
Iuliia Parfenova | Desmond Elliott | Raquel Fernández | Sandro Pezzelle

We investigate the representations learned by vision and language models in tasks that require relational reasoning. Focusing on the problem of assessing the relative size of objects in abstract visual contexts, we analyse both one-step and two-step reasoning. For the latter, we construct a new dataset of three-image scenes and define a task that requires reasoning at the level of the individual images and across images in a scene. We probe the learned model representations using diagnostic classifiers. Our experiments show that pretrained multimodal transformer-based architectures can perform higher-level relational reasoning, and are able to learn representations for novel tasks and data that are very different from what was seen in pretraining.

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In-Batch Negatives for Knowledge Distillation with Tightly-Coupled Teachers for Dense Retrieval
Sheng-Chieh Lin | Jheng-Hong Yang | Jimmy Lin

We present an efficient training approach to text retrieval with dense representations that applies knowledge distillation using the ColBERT late-interaction ranking model. Specifically, we propose to transfer the knowledge from a bi-encoder teacher to a student by distilling knowledge from ColBERT’s expressive MaxSim operator into a simple dot product. The advantage of the bi-encoder teacher–student setup is that we can efficiently add in-batch negatives during knowledge distillation, enabling richer interactions between teacher and student models. In addition, using ColBERT as the teacher reduces training cost compared to a full cross-encoder. Experiments on the MS MARCO passage and document ranking tasks and data from the TREC 2019 Deep Learning Track demonstrate that our approach helps models learn robust representations for dense retrieval effectively and efficiently.

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NPVec1: Word Embeddings for Nepali - Construction and Evaluation
Pravesh Koirala | Nobal B. Niraula

Word Embedding maps words to vectors of real numbers. It is derived from a large corpus and is known to capture semantic knowledge from the corpus. Word Embedding is a critical component of many state-of-the-art Deep Learning techniques. However, generating good Word Embeddings is a special challenge for low-resource languages such as Nepali due to the unavailability of large text corpus. In this paper, we present NPVec1 which consists of 25 state-of-art Word Embeddings for Nepali that we have derived from a large corpus using Glove, Word2Vec, FastText, and BERT. We further provide intrinsic and extrinsic evaluations of these Embeddings using well established metrics and methods. These models are trained using 279 million word tokens and are the largest Embeddings ever trained for Nepali language. Furthermore, we have made these Embeddings publicly available to accelerate the development of Natural Language Processing (NLP) applications in Nepali.

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Deriving Word Vectors from Contextualized Language Models using Topic-Aware Mention Selection
Yixiao Wang | Zied Bouraoui | Luis Espinosa Anke | Steven Schockaert

One of the long-standing challenges in lexical semantics consists in learning representations of words which reflect their semantic properties. The remarkable success of word embeddings for this purpose suggests that high-quality representations can be obtained by summarizing the sentence contexts of word mentions. In this paper, we propose a method for learning word representations that follows this basic strategy, but differs from standard word embeddings in two important ways. First, we take advantage of contextualized language models (CLMs) rather than bags of word vectors to encode contexts. Second, rather than learning a word vector directly, we use a topic model to partition the contexts in which words appear, and then learn different topic-specific vectors for each word. Finally, we use a task-specific supervision signal to make a soft selection of the resulting vectors. We show that this simple strategy leads to high-quality word vectors, which are more predictive of semantic properties than word embeddings and existing CLM-based strategies.

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Zero-shot Sequence Labeling for Transformer-based Sentence Classifiers
Kamil Bujel | Helen Yannakoudakis | Marek Rei

We investigate how sentence-level transformers can be modified into effective sequence labelers at the token level without any direct supervision. Existing approaches to zero-shot sequence labeling do not perform well when applied on transformer-based architectures. As transformers contain multiple layers of multi-head self-attention, information in the sentence gets distributed between many tokens, negatively affecting zero-shot token-level performance. We find that a soft attention module which explicitly encourages sharpness of attention weights can significantly outperform existing methods.

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Predicting the Success of Domain Adaptation in Text Similarity
Nick Pogrebnyakov | Shohreh Shaghaghian

Transfer learning methods, and in particular domain adaptation, help exploit labeled data in one domain to improve the performance of a certain task in another domain. However, it is still not clear what factors affect the success of domain adaptation. This paper models adaptation success and selection of the most suitable source domains among several candidates in text similarity. We use descriptive domain information and cross-domain similarity metrics as predictive features. While mostly positive, the results also point to some domains where adaptation success was difficult to predict.

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Syntagmatic Word Embeddings for Unsupervised Learning of Selectional Preferences
Renjith P. Ravindran | Akshay Badola | Narayana Kavi Murthy

Selectional Preference (SP) captures the tendency of a word to semantically select other words to be in direct syntactic relation with it, and thus informs us about syntactic word configurations that are meaningful. Therefore SP is a valuable resource for Natural Language Processing (NLP) systems and for semanticists. Learning SP has generally been seen as a supervised task, because it requires a parsed corpus as a source of syntactically related word pairs. In this paper we show that simple distributional analysis can learn a good amount of SP without the need for an annotated corpus. We extend the general word embedding technique with directional word context windows giving word representations that better capture syntagmatic relations. We test on the SP-10K dataset and demonstrate that syntagmatic embeddings outperform the paradigmatic embeddings. We also evaluate supervised version of these embeddings and show that unsupervised syntagmatic embeddings can be as good as supervised embeddings. We also make available the source code of our implementation.

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Bayesian Model-Agnostic Meta-Learning with Matrix-Valued Kernels for Quality Estimation
Abiola Obamuyide | Marina Fomicheva | Lucia Specia

Most current quality estimation (QE) models for machine translation are trained and evaluated in a fully supervised setting requiring significant quantities of labelled training data. However, obtaining labelled data can be both expensive and time-consuming. In addition, the test data that a deployed QE model would be exposed to may differ from its training data in significant ways. In particular, training samples are often labelled by one or a small set of annotators, whose perceptions of translation quality and needs may differ substantially from those of end-users, who will employ predictions in practice. Thus, it is desirable to be able to adapt QE models efficiently to new user data with limited supervision data. To address these challenges, we propose a Bayesian meta-learning approach for adapting QE models to the needs and preferences of each user with limited supervision. To enhance performance, we further propose an extension to a state-of-the-art Bayesian meta-learning approach which utilizes a matrix-valued kernel for Bayesian meta-learning of quality estimation. Experiments on data with varying number of users and language characteristics demonstrates that the proposed Bayesian meta-learning approach delivers improved predictive performance in both limited and full supervision settings.

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Knowledge Informed Semantic Parsing for Conversational Question Answering
Raghuveer Thirukovalluru | Mukund Sridhar | Dung Thai | Shruti Chanumolu | Nicholas Monath | Sankaranarayanan Ananthakrishnan | Andrew McCallum

Smart assistants are tasked to answer various questions regarding world knowledge. These questions range from retrieval of simple facts to retrieval of complex, multi-hops question followed by various operators (i.e., filter, argmax). Semantic parsing has emerged as the state-of-the-art for answering these kinds of questions by forming queries to extract information from knowledge bases (KBs). Specially, neural semantic parsers (NSPs) effectively translate natural questions to logical forms, which execute on KB and give desirable answers. Yet, NSPs suffer from non-executable logical forms for some instances in the generated logical forms might be missing due to the incompleteness of KBs. Intuitively, knowing the KB structure informs NSP with changes of the global logical forms structures with respect to changes in KB instances. In this work, we propose a novel knowledge-informed decoder variant of NSP. We consider the conversational question answering settings, where a natural language query, its context and its final answers are available at training. Experimental results show that our method outperformed strong baselines by 1.8 F1 points overall across 10 types of questions of the CSQA dataset. Especially for the “Logical Reasoning” category, our model improves by 7 F1 points. Furthermore, our results are achieved with 90.3% fewer parameters, allowing faster training for large-scale datasets.

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Simultaneously Self-Attending to Text and Entities for Knowledge-Informed Text Representations
Dung Thai | Raghuveer Thirukovalluru | Trapit Bansal | Andrew McCallum

Pre-trained language models have emerged as highly successful methods for learning good text representations. However, the amount of structured knowledge retained in such models, and how (if at all) it can be extracted, remains an open question. In this work, we aim at directly learning text representations which leverage structured knowledge about entities mentioned in the text. This can be particularly beneficial for downstream tasks which are knowledge-intensive. Our approach utilizes self-attention between words in the text and knowledge graph (KG) entities mentioned in the text. While existing methods require entity-linked data for pre-training, we train using a mention-span masking objective and a candidate ranking objective – which doesn’t require any entity-links and only assumes access to an alias table for retrieving candidates, enabling large-scale pre-training. We show that the proposed model learns knowledge-informed text representations that yield improvements on the downstream tasks over existing methods.

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Deriving Contextualised Semantic Features from BERT (and Other Transformer Model) Embeddings
Jacob Turton | Robert Elliott Smith | David Vinson

Models based on the transformer architecture, such as BERT, have marked a crucial step forward in the field of Natural Language Processing. Importantly, they allow the creation of word embeddings that capture important semantic information about words in context. However, as single entities, these embeddings are difficult to interpret and the models used to create them have been described as opaque. Binder and colleagues proposed an intuitive embedding space where each dimension is based on one of 65 core semantic features. Unfortunately, the space only exists for a small data-set of 535 words, limiting its uses. Previous work (Utsumi, 2018, 2020; Turton et al., 2020) has shown that Binder features can be derived from static embeddings and successfully extrapolated to a large new vocabulary. Taking the next step, this paper demonstrates that Binder features can be derived from the BERT embedding space. This provides two things; (1) semantic feature values derived from contextualised word embeddings and (2) insights into how semantic features are represented across the different layers of the BERT model.

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Syntactic Perturbations Reveal Representational Correlates of Hierarchical Phrase Structure in Pretrained Language Models
Matteo Alleman | Jonathan Mamou | Miguel A Del Rio | Hanlin Tang | Yoon Kim | SueYeon Chung

While vector-based language representations from pretrained language models have set a new standard for many NLP tasks, there is not yet a complete accounting of their inner workings. In particular, it is not entirely clear what aspects of sentence-level syntax are captured by these representations, nor how (if at all) they are built along the stacked layers of the network. In this paper, we aim to address such questions with a general class of interventional, input perturbation-based analyses of representations from pretrained language models. Importing from computational and cognitive neuroscience the notion of representational invariance, we perform a series of probes designed to test the sensitivity of these representations to several kinds of structure in sentences. Each probe involves swapping words in a sentence and comparing the representations from perturbed sentences against the original. We experiment with three different perturbations: (1) random permutations of n-grams of varying width, to test the scale at which a representation is sensitive to word position; (2) swapping of two spans which do or do not form a syntactic phrase, to test sensitivity to global phrase structure; and (3) swapping of two adjacent words which do or do not break apart a syntactic phrase, to test sensitivity to local phrase structure. Results from these probes collectively suggest that Transformers build sensitivity to larger parts of the sentence along their layers, and that hierarchical phrase structure plays a role in this process. More broadly, our results also indicate that structured input perturbations widens the scope of analyses that can be performed on often-opaque deep learning systems, and can serve as a complement to existing tools (such as supervised linear probes) for interpreting complex black-box models.

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Box-To-Box Transformations for Modeling Joint Hierarchies
Shib Sankar Dasgupta | Xiang Lorraine Li | Michael Boratko | Dongxu Zhang | Andrew McCallum

Learning representations of entities and relations in structured knowledge bases is an active area of research, with much emphasis placed on choosing the appropriate geometry to capture the hierarchical structures exploited in, for example, isa or haspart relations. Box embeddings (Vilnis et al., 2018; Li et al., 2019; Dasgupta et al., 2020), which represent concepts as n-dimensional hyperrectangles, are capable of embedding hierarchies when training on a subset of the transitive closure. In Patel et al., (2020), the authors demonstrate that only the transitive reduction is required and further extend box embeddings to capture joint hierarchies by augmenting the graph with new nodes. While it is possible to represent joint hierarchies with this method, the parameters for each hierarchy are decoupled, making generalization between hierarchies infeasible. In this work, we introduce a learned box-to-box transformation that respects the structure of each hierarchy. We demonstrate that this not only improves the capability of modeling cross-hierarchy compositional edges but is also capable of generalizing from a subset of the transitive reduction.

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An Overview of Uncertainty Calibration for Text Classification and the Role of Distillation
Han Guo | Ramakanth Pasunuru | Mohit Bansal

Recent advances in NLP systems, notably the pretraining-and-finetuning paradigm, have achieved great success in predictive accuracy. However, these systems are usually not well calibrated for uncertainty out-of-the-box. Many recalibration methods have been proposed in the literature for quantifying predictive uncertainty and calibrating model outputs, with varying degrees of complexity. In this work, we present a systematic study of a few of these methods. Focusing on the text classification task and finetuned large pretrained language models, we first show that many of the finetuned models are not well calibrated out-of-the-box, especially when the data come from out-of-domain settings. Next, we compare the effectiveness of a few widely-used recalibration methods (such as ensembles, temperature scaling). Then, we empirically illustrate a connection between distillation and calibration. We view distillation as a regularization term encouraging the student model to output uncertainties that match those of a teacher model. With this insight, we develop simple recalibration methods based on distillation with no additional inference-time cost. We show on the GLUE benchmark that our simple methods can achieve competitive out-of-domain (OOD) calibration performance w.r.t. more expensive approaches. Finally, we include ablations to understand the usefulness of components of our proposed method and examine the transferability of calibration via distillation.

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Entity and Evidence Guided Document-Level Relation Extraction
Kevin Huang | Peng Qi | Guangtao Wang | Tengyu Ma | Jing Huang

Document-level relation extraction is a challenging task, requiring reasoning over multiple sentences to predict a set of relations in a document. In this paper, we propose a novel framework E2GRE (Entity and Evidence Guided Relation Extraction) that jointly extracts relations and the underlying evidence sentences by using large pretrained language model (LM) as input encoder. First, we propose to guide the pretrained LM’s attention mechanism to focus on relevant context by using attention probabilities as additional features for evidence prediction. Furthermore, instead of feeding the whole document into pretrained LMs to obtain entity representation, we concatenate document text with head entities to help LMs concentrate on parts of the document that are more related to the head entity. Our E2GRE jointly learns relation extraction and evidence prediction effectively, showing large gains on both these tasks, which we find are highly correlated.

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Scaling Deep Contrastive Learning Batch Size under Memory Limited Setup
Luyu Gao | Yunyi Zhang | Jiawei Han | Jamie Callan

Contrastive learning has been applied successfully to learn vector representations of text. Previous research demonstrated that learning high-quality representations benefits from batch-wise contrastive loss with a large number of negatives. In practice, the technique of in-batch negative is used, where for each example in a batch, other batch examples’ positives will be taken as its negatives, avoiding encoding extra negatives. This, however, still conditions each example’s loss on all batch examples and requires fitting the entire large batch into GPU memory. This paper introduces a gradient caching technique that decouples backpropagation between contrastive loss and the encoder, removing encoder backward pass data dependency along the batch dimension. As a result, gradients can be computed for one subset of the batch at a time, leading to almost constant memory usage.

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Direction is what you need: Improving Word Embedding Compression in Large Language Models
Klaudia Bałazy | Mohammadreza Banaei | Rémi Lebret | Jacek Tabor | Karl Aberer

The adoption of Transformer-based models in natural language processing (NLP) has led to great success using a massive number of parameters. However, due to deployment constraints in edge devices, there has been a rising interest in the compression of these models to improve their inference time and memory footprint. This paper presents a novel loss objective to compress token embeddings in the Transformer-based models by leveraging an AutoEncoder architecture. More specifically, we emphasize the importance of the direction of compressed embeddings with respect to original uncompressed embeddings. The proposed method is task-agnostic and does not require further language modeling pre-training. Our method significantly outperforms the commonly used SVD-based matrix-factorization approach in terms of initial language model Perplexity. Moreover, we evaluate our proposed approach over SQuAD v1.1 dataset and several downstream tasks from the GLUE benchmark, where we also outperform the baseline in most scenarios. Our code is public.
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Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Scholarly Document Processing
Iz Beltagy | Arman Cohan | Guy Feigenblat | Dayne Freitag | Tirthankar Ghosal | Keith Hall | Drahomira Herrmannova | Petr Knoth | Kyle Lo | Philipp Mayr | Robert M. Patton | Michal Shmueli-Scheuer | Anita de Waard | Kuansan Wang | Lucy Lu Wang

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Determining the Credibility of Science Communication
Isabelle Augenstein

Most work on scholarly document processing assumes that the information processed is trust-worthy and factually correct. However, this is not always the case. There are two core challenges, which should be addressed: 1) ensuring that scientific publications are credible – e.g. that claims are not made without supporting evidence, and that all relevant supporting evidence is provided; and 2) that scientific findings are not misrepresented, distorted or outright misreported when communicated by journalists or the general public. I will present some first steps towards addressing these problems and outline remaining challenges.

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Unsupervised Document Expansion for Information Retrieval with Stochastic Text Generation
Soyeong Jeong | Jinheon Baek | ChaeHun Park | Jong Park

One of the challenges in information retrieval (IR) is the vocabulary mismatch problem, which happens when the terms between queries and documents are lexically different but semantically similar. While recent work has proposed to expand the queries or documents by enriching their representations with additional relevant terms to address this challenge, they usually require a large volume of query-document pairs to train an expansion model. In this paper, we propose an Unsupervised Document Expansion with Generation (UDEG) framework with a pre-trained language model, which generates diverse supplementary sentences for the original document without using labels on query-document pairs for training. For generating sentences, we further stochastically perturb their embeddings to generate more diverse sentences for document expansion. We validate our framework on two standard IR benchmark datasets. The results show that our framework significantly outperforms relevant expansion baselines for IR.

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Task Definition and Integration For Scientific-Document Writing Support
Hiromi Narimatsu | Kohei Koyama | Kohji Dohsaka | Ryuichiro Higashinaka | Yasuhiro Minami | Hirotoshi Taira

With the increase in the number of published academic papers, growing expectations have been placed on research related to supporting the writing process of scientific papers. Recently, research has been conducted on various tasks such as citation worthiness (judging whether a sentence requires citation), citation recommendation, and citation-text generation. However, since each task has been studied and evaluated using data that has been independently developed, it is currently impossible to verify whether such tasks can be successfully pipelined to effective use in scientific-document writing. In this paper, we first define a series of tasks related to scientific-document writing that can be pipelined. Then, we create a dataset of academic papers that can be used for the evaluation of each task as well as a series of these tasks. Finally, using the dataset, we evaluate the tasks of citation worthiness and citation recommendation as well as both of these tasks integrated. The results of our evaluations show that the proposed approach is promising.

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Detecting Anatomical and Functional Connectivity Relations in Biomedical Literature via Language Representation Models
Ibrahim Burak Ozyurt | Joseph Menke | Anita Bandrowski | Maryann Martone

Understanding of nerve-organ interactions is crucial to facilitate the development of effective bioelectronic treatments. Towards the end of developing a systematized and computable wiring diagram of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), we introduce a curated ANS connectivity corpus together with several neural language representation model based connectivity relation extraction systems. We also show that active learning guided curation for labeled corpus expansion significantly outperforms randomly selecting connectivity relation candidates minimizing curation effort. Our final relation extraction system achieves F1 = 72.8% on anatomical connectivity and F1 = 74.6% on functional connectivity relation extraction.

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The Biomaterials Annotator: a system for ontology-based concept annotation of biomaterials text
Javier Corvi | Carla Fuenteslópez | José Fernández | Josep Gelpi | Maria-Pau Ginebra | Salvador Capella-Guitierrez | Osnat Hakimi

Biomaterials are synthetic or natural materials used for constructing artificial organs, fabricating prostheses, or replacing tissues. The last century saw the development of thousands of novel biomaterials and, as a result, an exponential increase in scientific publications in the field. Large-scale analysis of biomaterials and their performance could enable data-driven material selection and implant design. However, such analysis requires identification and organization of concepts, such as materials and structures, from published texts. To facilitate future information extraction and the application of machine-learning techniques, we developed a semantic annotator specifically tailored for the biomaterials literature. The Biomaterials Annotator has been implemented following a modular organization using software containers for the different components and orchestrated using Nextflow as workflow manager. Natural language processing (NLP) components are mainly developed in Java. This set-up has allowed named entity recognition of seventeen classes relevant to the biomaterials domain. Here we detail the development, evaluation and performance of the system, as well as the release of the first collection of annotated biomaterials abstracts. We make both the corpus and system available to the community to promote future efforts in the field and contribute towards its sustainability.

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Keyphrase Extraction from Scientific Articles via Extractive Summarization
Chrysovalantis Giorgos Kontoulis | Eirini Papagiannopoulou | Grigorios Tsoumakas

Automatically extracting keyphrases from scholarly documents leads to a valuable concise representation that humans can understand and machines can process for tasks, such as information retrieval, article clustering and article classification. This paper is concerned with the parts of a scientific article that should be given as input to keyphrase extraction methods. Recent deep learning methods take titles and abstracts as input due to the increased computational complexity in processing long sequences, whereas traditional approaches can also work with full-texts. Titles and abstracts are dense in keyphrases, but often miss important aspects of the articles, while full-texts on the other hand are richer in keyphrases but much noisier. To address this trade-off, we propose the use of extractive summarization models on the full-texts of scholarly documents. Our empirical study on 3 article collections using 3 keyphrase extraction methods shows promising results.

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Argument Mining for Scholarly Document Processing: Taking Stock and Looking Ahead
Khalid Al Khatib | Tirthankar Ghosal | Yufang Hou | Anita de Waard | Dayne Freitag

Argument mining targets structures in natural language related to interpretation and persuasion which are central to scientific communication. Most scholarly discourse involves interpreting experimental evidence and attempting to persuade other scientists to adopt the same conclusions. While various argument mining studies have addressed student essays and news articles, those that target scientific discourse are still scarce. This paper surveys existing work in argument mining of scholarly discourse, and provides an overview of current models, data, tasks, and applications. We identify a number of key challenges confronting argument mining in the scientific domain, and suggest some possible solutions and future directions.

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Bootstrapping Multilingual Metadata Extraction: A Showcase in Cyrillic
Johan Krause | Igor Shapiro | Tarek Saier | Michael Färber

Applications based on scholarly data are of ever increasing importance. This results in disadvantages for areas where high-quality data and compatible systems are not available, such as non-English publications. To advance the mitigation of this imbalance, we use Cyrillic script publications from the CORE collection to create a high-quality data set for metadata extraction. We utilize our data for training and evaluating sequence labeling models to extract title and author information. Retraining GROBID on our data, we observe significant improvements in terms of precision and recall and achieve even better results with a self developed model. We make our data set covering over 15,000 publications as well as our source code freely available.

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The Effect of Pretraining on Extractive Summarization for Scientific Documents
Yash Gupta | Pawan Sasanka Ammanamanchi | Shikha Bordia | Arjun Manoharan | Deepak Mittal | Ramakanth Pasunuru | Manish Shrivastava | Maneesh Singh | Mohit Bansal | Preethi Jyothi

Large pretrained models have seen enormous success in extractive summarization tasks. In this work, we investigate the influence of pretraining on a BERT-based extractive summarization system for scientific documents. We derive significant performance improvements using an intermediate pretraining step that leverages existing summarization datasets and report state-of-the-art results on a recently released scientific summarization dataset, SciTLDR. We systematically analyze the intermediate pretraining step by varying the size and domain of the pretraining corpus, changing the length of the input sequence in the target task and varying target tasks. We also investigate how intermediate pretraining interacts with contextualized word embeddings trained on different domains.

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Finding Pragmatic Differences Between Disciplines
Lee Kezar | Jay Pujara

Scholarly documents have a great degree of variation, both in terms of content (semantics) and structure (pragmatics). Prior work in scholarly document understanding emphasizes semantics through document summarization and corpus topic modeling but tends to omit pragmatics such as document organization and flow. Using a corpus of scholarly documents across 19 disciplines and state-of-the-art language modeling techniques, we learn a fixed set of domain-agnostic descriptors for document sections and “retrofit” the corpus to these descriptors (also referred to as “normalization”). Then, we analyze the position and ordering of these descriptors across documents to understand the relationship between discipline and structure. We report within-discipline structural archetypes, variability, and between-discipline comparisons, supporting the hypothesis that scholarly communities, despite their size, diversity, and breadth, share similar avenues for expressing their work. Our findings lay the foundation for future work in assessing research quality, domain style transfer, and further pragmatic analysis.

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Extractive Research Slide Generation Using Windowed Labeling Ranking
Athar Sefid | Prasenjit Mitra | Jian Wu | C Lee Giles

Presentation slides generated from original research papers provide an efficient form to present research innovations. Manually generating presentation slides is labor-intensive. We propose a method to automatically generates slides for scientific articles based on a corpus of 5000 paper-slide pairs compiled from conference proceedings websites. The sentence labeling module of our method is based on SummaRuNNer, a neural sequence model for extractive summarization. Instead of ranking sentences based on semantic similarities in the whole document, our algorithm measures the importance and novelty of sentences by combining semantic and lexical features within a sentence window. Our method outperforms several baseline methods including SummaRuNNer by a significant margin in terms of ROUGE score.

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LongSumm 2021: Session based automatic summarization model for scientific document
Senci Ying | Zheng Yan Zhao | Wuhe Zou

Most summarization task focuses on generating relatively short summaries. Such a length constraint might not be appropriate when summarizing scientific work. The LongSumm task needs participants generate long summary for scientific document. This task usual can be solved by language model. But an important problem is that model like BERT is limit to memory, and can not deal with a long input like a document. Also generate a long output is hard. In this paper, we propose a session based automatic summarization model(SBAS) which using a session and ensemble mechanism to generate long summary. And our model achieves the best performance in the LongSumm task.

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CNLP-NITS @ LongSumm 2021: TextRank Variant for Generating Long Summaries
Darsh Kaushik | Abdullah Faiz Ur Rahman Khilji | Utkarsh Sinha | Partha Pakray

The huge influx of published papers in the field of machine learning makes the task of summarization of scholarly documents vital, not just to eliminate the redundancy but also to provide a complete and satisfying crux of the content. We participated in LongSumm 2021: The 2nd Shared Task on Generating Long Summaries for scientific documents, where the task is to generate long summaries for scientific papers provided by the organizers. This paper discusses our extractive summarization approach to solve the task. We used TextRank algorithm with the BM25 score as a similarity function. Even after being a graph-based ranking algorithm that does not require any learning, TextRank produced pretty decent results with minimal compute power and time. We attained 3rd rank according to ROUGE-1 scores (0.5131 for F-measure and 0.5271 for recall) and performed decently as shown by the ROUGE-2 scores.

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Unsupervised document summarization using pre-trained sentence embeddings and graph centrality
Juan Ramirez-Orta | Evangelos Milios

This paper describes our submission for the LongSumm task in SDP 2021. We propose a method for incorporating sentence embeddings produced by deep language models into extractive summarization techniques based on graph centrality in an unsupervised manner. The proposed method is simple, fast, can summarize any kind of document of any size and can satisfy any length constraints for the summaries produced. The method offers competitive performance to more sophisticated supervised methods and can serve as a proxy for abstractive summarization techniques

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QMUL-SDS at SCIVER: Step-by-Step Binary Classification for Scientific Claim Verification
Xia Zeng | Arkaitz Zubiaga

Scientific claim verification is a unique challenge that is attracting increasing interest. The SCIVER shared task offers a benchmark scenario to test and compare claim verification approaches by participating teams and consists in three steps: relevant abstract selection, rationale selection and label prediction. In this paper, we present team QMUL-SDS’s participation in the shared task. We propose an approach that performs scientific claim verification by doing binary classifications step-by-step. We trained a BioBERT-large classifier to select abstracts based on pairwise relevance assessments for each <claim, title of the abstract> and continued to train it to select rationales out of each retrieved abstract based on <claim, sentence>. We then propose a two-step setting for label prediction, i.e. first predicting “NOT_ENOUGH_INFO” or “ENOUGH_INFO”, then label those marked as “ENOUGH_INFO” as either “SUPPORT” or “CONTRADICT”. Compared to the baseline system, we achieve substantial improvements on the dev set. As a result, our team is the No. 4 team on the leaderboard.

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Overview and Insights from the SCIVER shared task on Scientific Claim Verification
David Wadden | Kyle Lo

We present an overview of the SCIVER shared task, presented at the 2nd Scholarly Document Processing (SDP) workshop at NAACL 2021. In this shared task, systems were provided a scientific claim and a corpus of research abstracts, and asked to identify which articles Support or Refute the claim as well as provide evidentiary sentences justifying those labels. 11 teams made a total of 14 submissions to the shared task leaderboard, leading to an improvement of more than +23 F1 on the primary task evaluation metric. In addition to surveying the participating systems, we provide several insights into modeling approaches to support continued progress and future research on the important and challenging task of scientific claim verification.

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SciBERT Sentence Representation for Citation Context Classification
Himanshu Maheshwari | Bhavyajeet Singh | Vasudeva Varma

This paper describes our system (IREL) for 3C-Citation Context Classification shared task of the Scholarly Document Processing Workshop at NAACL 2021. We participated in both subtask A and subtask B. Our best system achieved a Macro F1 score of 0.26973 on the private leaderboard for subtask A and was ranked one. For subtask B our best system achieved a Macro F1 score of 0.59071 on the private leaderboard and was ranked two. We used similar models for both the subtasks with some minor changes, as discussed in this paper. Our best performing model for both the subtask was a finetuned SciBert model followed by a linear layer. This paper provides a detailed description of all the approaches we tried and their results.

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Multitask Learning for Citation Purpose Classification
Yasa M. Baig | Alex X. Oesterling | Rui Xin | Haoyang Yu | Angikar Ghosal | Lesia Semenova | Cynthia Rudin

We present our entry into the 2021 3C Shared Task Citation Context Classification based on Purpose competition. The goal of the competition is to classify a citation in a scientific article based on its purpose. This task is important because it could potentially lead to more comprehensive ways of summarizing the purpose and uses of scientific articles, but it is also difficult, mainly due to the limited amount of available training data in which the purposes of each citation have been hand-labeled, along with the subjectivity of these labels. Our entry in the competition is a multi-task model that combines multiple modules designed to handle the problem from different perspectives, including hand-generated linguistic features, TF-IDF features, and an LSTM-with- attention model. We also provide an ablation study and feature analysis whose insights could lead to future work.

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IITP-CUNI@3C: Supervised Approaches for Citation Classification (Task A) and Citation Significance Detection (Task B)
Kamal Kaushik Varanasi | Tirthankar Ghosal | Piyush Tiwary | Muskaan Singh

Citations are crucial to a scientific discourse. Besides providing additional contexts to research papers, citations act as trackers of the direction of research in a field and as an important measure in understanding the impact of a research publication. With the rapid growth in research publications, automated solutions for identifying the purpose and influence of citations are becoming very important. The 3C Citation Context Classification Task organized as part of the Second Workshop on Scholarly Document Processing @ NAACL 2021 is a shared task to address the aforementioned problems. In this paper, we present our team, IITP-CUNI@3C’s submission to the 3C shared tasks. For Task A, citation context purpose classification, we propose a neural multi-task learning framework that harnesses the structural information of the research papers and the relation between the citation context and the cited paper for citation classification. For Task B, citation context influence classification, we use a set of simple features to classify citations based on their perceived significance. We achieve comparable performance with respect to the best performing systems in Task A and superseded the majority baseline in Task B with very simple features.

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Amrita_CEN_NLP@SDP2021 Task A and B
Premjith B | Isha Indhu S | Kavya S. Kumar | Lakshaya Karthikeyan | Soman Kp

The purpose and influence of a citation are important in understanding the quality of a publication. The 3c citation context classification shared task at the Second Workshop on Scholarly Document Processing aims at addressing this problem. This paper is the submission of the team Amrita_CEN_NLP to the shared task. We employed Bi-directional Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) networks and a Random Forest classifier for modelling the aforementioned problems by considering the class imbalance problem in the data.

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Overview of the 2021 SDP 3C Citation Context Classification Shared Task
Suchetha N. Kunnath | David Pride | Drahomira Herrmannova | Petr Knoth

This paper provides an overview of the 2021 3C Citation Context Classification shared task. The second edition of the shared task was organised as part of the 2nd Workshop on Scholarly Document Processing (SDP 2021). The task is composed of two subtasks: classifying citations based on their (Subtask A) purpose and (Subtask B) influence. As in the previous year, both tasks were hosted on Kaggle and used a portion of the new ACT dataset. A total of 22 teams participated in Subtask A, and 19 teams competed in Subtask B. All the participated systems were ranked based on their achieved macro f-score. The highest scores of 0.26973 and 0.60025 were reported for subtask A and B, respectively.

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Overview of the Second Workshop on Scholarly Document Processing
Iz Beltagy | Arman Cohan | Guy Feigenblat | Dayne Freitag | Tirthankar Ghosal | Keith Hall | Drahomira Herrmannova | Petr Knoth | Kyle Lo | Philipp Mayr | Robert Patton | Michal Shmueli-Scheuer | Anita de Waard | Kuansan Wang | Lucy Lu Wang

With the ever-increasing pace of research and high volume of scholarly communication, scholars face a daunting task. Not only must they keep up with the growing literature in their own and related fields, scholars increasingly also need to rebut pseudo-science and disinformation. These needs have motivated an increasing focus on computational methods for enhancing search, summarization, and analysis of scholarly documents. However, the various strands of research on scholarly document processing remain fragmented. To reach out to the broader NLP and AI/ML community, pool distributed efforts in this area, and enable shared access to published research, we held the 2nd Workshop on Scholarly Document Processing (SDP) at NAACL 2021 as a virtual event (https://sdproc.org/2021/). The SDP workshop consisted of a research track, three invited talks, and three Shared Tasks (LongSumm 2021, SCIVER, and 3C). The program was geared towards the application of NLP, information retrieval, and data mining for scholarly documents, with an emphasis on identifying and providing solutions to open challenges.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 15th International Workshop on Semantic Evaluation (SemEval-2021)

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Proceedings of the 15th International Workshop on Semantic Evaluation (SemEval-2021)
Alexis Palmer | Nathan Schneider | Natalie Schluter | Guy Emerson | Aurelie Herbelot | Xiaodan Zhu

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SemEval-2021 Task 1: Lexical Complexity Prediction
Matthew Shardlow | Richard Evans | Gustavo Henrique Paetzold | Marcos Zampieri

This paper presents the results and main findings of SemEval-2021 Task 1 - Lexical Complexity Prediction. We provided participants with an augmented version of the CompLex Corpus (Shardlow et al. 2020). CompLex is an English multi-domain corpus in which words and multi-word expressions (MWEs) were annotated with respect to their complexity using a five point Likert scale. SemEval-2021 Task 1 featured two Sub-tasks: Sub-task 1 focused on single words and Sub-task 2 focused on MWEs. The competition attracted 198 teams in total, of which 54 teams submitted official runs on the test data to Sub-task 1 and 37 to Sub-task 2.

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OCHADAI-KYOTO at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Enhancing Model Generalization and Robustness for Lexical Complexity Prediction
Yuki Taya | Lis Kanashiro Pereira | Fei Cheng | Ichiro Kobayashi

We propose an ensemble model for predicting the lexical complexity of words and multiword expressions (MWEs). The model receives as input a sentence with a target word or MWE and outputs its complexity score. Given that a key challenge with this task is the limited size of annotated data, our model relies on pretrained contextual representations from different state-of-the-art transformer-based language models (i.e., BERT and RoBERTa), and on a variety of training methods for further enhancing model generalization and robustness: multi-step fine-tuning and multi-task learning, and adversarial training. Additionally, we propose to enrich contextual representations by adding hand-crafted features during training. Our model achieved competitive results and ranked among the top-10 systems in both sub-tasks.

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SemEval-2021 Task 2: Multilingual and Cross-lingual Word-in-Context Disambiguation (MCL-WiC)
Federico Martelli | Najla Kalach | Gabriele Tola | Roberto Navigli

In this paper, we introduce the first SemEval task on Multilingual and Cross-Lingual Word-in-Context disambiguation (MCL-WiC). This task allows the largely under-investigated inherent ability of systems to discriminate between word senses within and across languages to be evaluated, dropping the requirement of a fixed sense inventory. Framed as a binary classification, our task is divided into two parts. In the multilingual sub-task, participating systems are required to determine whether two target words, each occurring in a different context within the same language, express the same meaning or not. Instead, in the cross-lingual part, systems are asked to perform the task in a cross-lingual scenario, in which the two target words and their corresponding contexts are provided in two different languages. We illustrate our task, as well as the construction of our manually-created dataset including five languages, namely Arabic, Chinese, English, French and Russian, and the results of the participating systems. Datasets and results are available at: https://github.com/SapienzaNLP/mcl-wic.

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SemEval-2021 Task 4: Reading Comprehension of Abstract Meaning
Boyuan Zheng | Xiaoyu Yang | Yu-Ping Ruan | Zhenhua Ling | Quan Liu | Si Wei | Xiaodan Zhu

This paper introduces the SemEval-2021 shared task 4: Reading Comprehension of Abstract Meaning (ReCAM). This shared task is designed to help evaluate the ability of machines in representing and understanding abstract concepts. Given a passage and the corresponding question, a participating system is expected to choose the correct answer from five candidates of abstract concepts in cloze-style machine reading comprehension tasks. Based on two typical definitions of abstractness, i.e., the imperceptibility and nonspecificity, our task provides three subtasks to evaluate models’ ability in comprehending the two types of abstract meaning and the models’ generalizability. Specifically, Subtask 1 aims to evaluate how well a participating system models concepts that cannot be directly perceived in the physical world. Subtask 2 focuses on models’ ability in comprehending nonspecific concepts located high in a hypernym hierarchy given the context of a passage. Subtask 3 aims to provide some insights into models’ generalizability over the two types of abstractness. During the SemEval-2021 official evaluation period, we received 23 submissions to Subtask 1 and 28 to Subtask 2. The participating teams additionally made 29 submissions to Subtask 3. The leaderboard and competition website can be found at https://competitions.codalab.org/competitions/26153. The data and baseline code are available at https://github.com/boyuanzheng010/SemEval2021-Reading-Comprehension-of-Abstract-Meaning.

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TA-MAMC at SemEval-2021 Task 4: Task-adaptive Pretraining and Multi-head Attention for Abstract Meaning Reading Comprehension
Jing Zhang | Yimeng Zhuang | Yinpei Su

This paper describes our system used in the SemEval-2021 Task4 Reading Comprehension of Abstract Meaning, achieving 1st for subtask 1 and 2nd for subtask 2 on the leaderboard. We propose an ensemble of ELECTRA-based models with task-adaptive pretraining and a multi-head attention multiple-choice classifier on top of the pre-trained model. The main contributions of our system are 1) revealing the performance discrepancy of different transformer-based pretraining models on the downstream task, 2) presentation of an efficient method to generate large task-adaptive corpora for pretraining. We also investigated several pretraining strategies and contrastive learning objectives. Our system achieves a test accuracy of 95.11 and 94.89 on subtask 1 and subtask 2 respectively.

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SemEval-2021 Task 5: Toxic Spans Detection
John Pavlopoulos | Jeffrey Sorensen | Léo Laugier | Ion Androutsopoulos

The Toxic Spans Detection task of SemEval-2021 required participants to predict the spans of toxic posts that were responsible for the toxic label of the posts. The task could be addressed as supervised sequence labeling, using training data with gold toxic spans provided by the organisers. It could also be treated as rationale extraction, using classifiers trained on potentially larger external datasets of posts manually annotated as toxic or not, without toxic span annotations. For the supervised sequence labeling approach and evaluation purposes, posts previously labeled as toxic were crowd-annotated for toxic spans. Participants submitted their predicted spans for a held-out test set and were scored using character-based F1. This overview summarises the work of the 36 teams that provided system descriptions.

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SemEval-2021 Task 6: Detection of Persuasion Techniques in Texts and Images
Dimitar Dimitrov | Bishr Bin Ali | Shaden Shaar | Firoj Alam | Fabrizio Silvestri | Hamed Firooz | Preslav Nakov | Giovanni Da San Martino

We describe SemEval-2021 task 6 on Detection of Persuasion Techniques in Texts and Images: the data, the annotation guidelines, the evaluation setup, the results, and the participating systems. The task focused on memes and had three subtasks: (i) detecting the techniques in the text, (ii) detecting the text spans where the techniques are used, and (iii) detecting techniques in the entire meme, i.e., both in the text and in the image. It was a popular task, attracting 71 registrations, and 22 teams that eventually made an official submission on the test set. The evaluation results for the third subtask confirmed the importance of both modalities, the text and the image. Moreover, some teams reported benefits when not just combining the two modalities, e.g., by using early or late fusion, but rather modeling the interaction between them in a joint model.

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Alpha at SemEval-2021 Task 6: Transformer Based Propaganda Classification
Zhida Feng | Jiji Tang | Jiaxiang Liu | Weichong Yin | Shikun Feng | Yu Sun | Li Chen

This paper describes our system participated in Task 6 of SemEval-2021: the task focuses on multimodal propaganda technique classification and it aims to classify given image and text into 22 classes. In this paper, we propose to use transformer based architecture to fuse the clues from both image and text. We explore two branches of techniques including fine-tuning the text pretrained transformer with extended visual features, and fine-tuning the multimodal pretrained transformers. For the visual features, we have tested both grid features based on ResNet and salient region features from pretrained object detector. Among the pretrained multimodal transformers, we choose ERNIE-ViL, a two-steam cross-attended transformers pretrained on large scale image-caption aligned data. Fine-tuing ERNIE-ViL for our task produce a better performance due to general joint multimodal representation for text and image learned by ERNIE-ViL. Besides, as the distribution of the classification labels is very unbalanced, we also make a further attempt on the loss function and the experiment result shows that focal loss would perform better than cross entropy loss. Last we have won first for subtask C in the final competition.

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SemEval 2021 Task 7: HaHackathon, Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense
J. A. Meaney | Steven Wilson | Luis Chiruzzo | Adam Lopez | Walid Magdy

SemEval 2021 Task 7, HaHackathon, was the first shared task to combine the previously separate domains of humor detection and offense detection. We collected 10,000 texts from Twitter and the Kaggle Short Jokes dataset, and had each annotated for humor and offense by 20 annotators aged 18-70. Our subtasks were binary humor detection, prediction of humor and offense ratings, and a novel controversy task: to predict if the variance in the humor ratings was higher than a specific threshold. The subtasks attracted 36-58 submissions, with most of the participants choosing to use pre-trained language models. Many of the highest performing teams also implemented additional optimization techniques, including task-adaptive training and adversarial training. The results suggest that the participating systems are well suited to humor detection, but that humor controversy is a more challenging task. We discuss which models excel in this task, which auxiliary techniques boost their performance, and analyze the errors which were not captured by the best systems.

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LangResearchLab NC at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Linguistic Feature Based Modelling for Lexical Complexity
Raksha Agarwal | Niladri Chatterjee

The present work aims at assigning a complexity score between 0 and 1 to a target word or phrase in a given sentence. For each Single Word Target, a Random Forest Regressor is trained on a feature set consisting of lexical, semantic, and syntactic information about the target. For each Multiword Target, a set of individual word features is taken along with single word complexities in the feature space. The system yielded the Pearson correlation of 0.7402 and 0.8244 on the test set for the Single and Multiword Targets, respectively.

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Complex words identification using word-level features for SemEval-2020 Task 1
Jenny A. Ortiz-Zambrano | Arturo Montejo-Ráez

This article describes a system to predict the complexity of words for the Lexical Complexity Prediction (LCP) shared task hosted at SemEval 2021 (Task 1) with a new annotated English dataset with a Likert scale. Located in the Lexical Semantics track, the task consisted of predicting the complexity value of the words in context. A machine learning approach was carried out based on the frequency of the words and several characteristics added at word level. Over these features, a supervised random forest regression algorithm was trained. Several runs were performed with different values to observe the performance of the algorithm. For the evaluation, our best results reported a M.A.E score of 0.07347, M.S.E. of 0.00938, and R.M.S.E. of 0.096871. Our experiments showed that, with a greater number of characteristics, the precision of the classification increases.

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TUDA-CCL at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Using Gradient-boosted Regression Tree Ensembles Trained on a Heterogeneous Feature Set for Predicting Lexical Complexity
Sebastian Gombert | Sabine Bartsch

In this paper, we present our systems submitted to SemEval-2021 Task 1 on lexical complexity prediction. The aim of this shared task was to create systems able to predict the lexical complexity of word tokens and bigram multiword expressions within a given sentence context, a continuous value indicating the difficulty in understanding a respective utterance. Our approach relies on gradient boosted regression tree ensembles fitted using a heterogeneous feature set combining linguistic features, static and contextualized word embeddings, psycholinguistic norm lexica, WordNet, word- and character bigram frequencies and inclusion in wordlists to create a model able to assign a word or multiword expression a context-dependent complexity score. We can show that especially contextualised string embeddings can help with predicting lexical complexity.

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JCT at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Context-aware Representation for Lexical Complexity Prediction
Chaya Liebeskind | Otniel Elkayam | Shmuel Liebeskind

In this paper, we present our contribution in SemEval-2021 Task 1: Lexical Complexity Prediction, where we integrate linguistic, statistical, and semantic properties of the target word and its context as features within a Machine Learning (ML) framework for predicting lexical complexity. In particular, we use BERT contextualized word embeddings to represent the semantic meaning of the target word and its context. We participated in the sub-task of predicting the complexity score of single words

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IAPUCP at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Stacking Fine-Tuned Transformers is Almost All You Need for Lexical Complexity Prediction
Kervy Rivas Rojas | Fernando Alva-Manchego

This paper describes our submission to SemEval-2021 Task 1: predicting the complexity score for single words. Our model leverages standard morphosyntactic and frequency-based features that proved helpful for Complex Word Identification (a related task), and combines them with predictions made by Transformer-based pre-trained models that were fine-tuned on the Shared Task data. Our submission system stacks all previous models with a LightGBM at the top. One novelty of our approach is the use of multi-task learning for fine-tuning a pre-trained model for both Lexical Complexity Prediction and Word Sense Disambiguation. Our analysis shows that all independent models achieve a good performance in the task, but that stacking them obtains a Pearson correlation of 0.7704, merely 0.018 points behind the winning submission.

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Uppsala NLP at SemEval-2021 Task 2: Multilingual Language Models for Fine-tuning and Feature Extraction in Word-in-Context Disambiguation
Huiling You | Xingran Zhu | Sara Stymne

We describe the Uppsala NLP submission to SemEval-2021 Task 2 on multilingual and cross-lingual word-in-context disambiguation. We explore the usefulness of three pre-trained multilingual language models, XLM-RoBERTa (XLMR), Multilingual BERT (mBERT) and multilingual distilled BERT (mDistilBERT). We compare these three models in two setups, fine-tuning and as feature extractors. In the second case we also experiment with using dependency-based information. We find that fine-tuning is better than feature extraction. XLMR performs better than mBERT in the cross-lingual setting both with fine-tuning and feature extraction, whereas these two models give a similar performance in the multilingual setting. mDistilBERT performs poorly with fine-tuning but gives similar results to the other models when used as a feature extractor. We submitted our two best systems, fine-tuned with XLMR and mBERT.

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SkoltechNLP at SemEval-2021 Task 2: Generating Cross-Lingual Training Data for the Word-in-Context Task
Anton Razzhigaev | Nikolay Arefyev | Alexander Panchenko

In this paper, we present a system for the solution of the cross-lingual and multilingual word-in-context disambiguation task. Task organizers provided monolingual data in several languages, but no cross-lingual training data were available. To address the lack of the officially provided cross-lingual training data, we decided to generate such data ourselves. We describe a simple yet effective approach based on machine translation and back translation of the lexical units to the original language used in the context of this shared task. In our experiments, we used a neural system based on the XLM-R, a pre-trained transformer-based masked language model, as a baseline. We show the effectiveness of the proposed approach as it allows to substantially improve the performance of this strong neural baseline model. In addition, in this study, we present multiple types of the XLM-R based classifier, experimenting with various ways of mixing information from the first and second occurrences of the target word in two samples.

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Zhestyatsky at SemEval-2021 Task 2: ReLU over Cosine Similarity for BERT Fine-tuning
Boris Zhestiankin | Maria Ponomareva

This paper presents our contribution to SemEval-2021 Task 2: Multilingual and Cross-lingual Word-in-Context Disambiguation (MCL-WiC). Our experiments cover English (EN-EN) sub-track from the multilingual setting of the task. We experiment with several pre-trained language models and investigate an impact of different top-layers on fine-tuning. We find the combination of Cosine Similarity and ReLU activation leading to the most effective fine-tuning procedure. Our best model results in accuracy 92.7%, which is the fourth-best score in EN-EN sub-track.

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SzegedAI at SemEval-2021 Task 2: Zero-shot Approach for Multilingual and Cross-lingual Word-in-Context Disambiguation
Gábor Berend

In this paper, we introduce our system that we participated with at the multilingual and cross-lingual word-in-context disambiguation SemEval 2021 shared task. In our experiments, we investigated the possibility of using an all-words fine-grained word sense disambiguation system trained purely on sense-annotated data in English and draw predictions on the semantic equivalence of words in context based on the similarity of the ranked lists of the (English) WordNet synsets returned for the target words decisions had to be made for. We overcame the multi,-and cross-lingual aspects of the shared task by applying a multilingual transformer for encoding the texts written in either Arabic, English, French, Russian and Chinese. While our results lag behind top scoring submissions, it has the benefit that it not only provides a binary flag whether two words in their context have the same meaning, but also provides a more tangible output in the form of a ranked list of (English) WordNet synsets irrespective of the language of the input texts. As our framework is designed to be as generic as possible, it can be applied as a baseline for basically any language (supported by the multilingual transformed architecture employed) even in the absence of any additional form of language specific training data.

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ReCAM@IITK at SemEval-2021 Task 4: BERT and ALBERT based Ensemble for Abstract Word Prediction
Abhishek Mittal | Ashutosh Modi

This paper describes our system for Task 4 of SemEval-2021: Reading Comprehension of Abstract Meaning (ReCAM). We participated in all subtasks where the main goal was to predict an abstract word missing from a statement. We fine-tuned the pre-trained masked language models namely BERT and ALBERT and used an Ensemble of these as our submitted system on Subtask 1 (ReCAM-Imperceptibility) and Subtask 2 (ReCAM-Nonspecificity). For Subtask 3 (ReCAM-Intersection), we submitted the ALBERT model as it gives the best results. We tried multiple approaches and found that Masked Language Modeling(MLM) based approach works the best.

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ECNU_ICA_1 SemEval-2021 Task 4: Leveraging Knowledge-enhanced Graph Attention Networks for Reading Comprehension of Abstract Meaning
Pingsheng Liu | Linlin Wang | Qian Zhao | Hao Chen | Yuxi Feng | Xin Lin | Liang He

This paper describes our system for SemEval-2021 Task 4: Reading Comprehension of Abstract Meaning. To accomplish this task, we utilize the Knowledge-Enhanced Graph Attention Network (KEGAT) architecture with a novel semantic space transformation strategy. It leverages heterogeneous knowledge to learn adequate evidences, and seeks for an effective semantic space of abstract concepts to better improve the ability of a machine in understanding the abstract meaning of natural language. Experimental results show that our system achieves strong performance on this task in terms of both imperceptibility and nonspecificity.

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LRG at SemEval-2021 Task 4: Improving Reading Comprehension with Abstract Words using Augmentation, Linguistic Features and Voting
Abheesht Sharma | Harshit Pandey | Gunjan Chhablani | Yash Bhartia | Tirtharaj Dash

We present our approaches and methods for SemEval-2021 Task-4 Reading Comprehension of Abstract Meaning. Given a question with a fill-in-the-blank, and a corresponding context, the task is to predict the most suitable word from a list of 5 options. There are three subtasks: Imperceptibility, Non-Specificity and Intersection. We use encoders of transformers-based models pretrained on the MLM task to build our Fill-in-the-blank (FitB) models. Moreover, to model imperceptibility, we define certain linguistic features, and to model non-specificity, we leverage information from hypernyms and hyponyms provided by a lexical database. Specifically, for non-specificity, we try out augmentation techniques, and other statistical techniques. We also propose variants, namely Chunk Voting and Max Context, to take care of input length restrictions for BERT, etc. Additionally, we perform a thorough ablation study, and use Integrated Gradients to explain our predictions on a few samples. Our models achieve accuracies of 75.31% and 77.84%, on the test sets for subtask-I and subtask-II, respectively. For subtask-III, we achieve accuracies of 65.64% and 64.27%.

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IIE-NLP-Eyas at SemEval-2021 Task 4: Enhancing PLM for ReCAM with Special Tokens, Re-Ranking, Siamese Encoders and Back Translation
Yuqiang Xie | Luxi Xing | Wei Peng | Yue Hu

This paper introduces our systems for all three subtasks of SemEval-2021 Task 4: Reading Comprehension of Abstract Meaning. To help our model better represent and understand abstract concepts in natural language, we well-design many simple and effective approaches adapted to the backbone model (RoBERTa). Specifically, we formalize the subtasks into the multiple-choice question answering format and add special tokens to abstract concepts, then, the final prediction of QA is considered as the result of subtasks. Additionally, we employ many finetuning tricks to improve the performance. Experimental results show that our approach gains significant performance compared with the baseline systems. Our system achieves eighth rank (87.51%) and tenth rank (89.64%) on the official blind test set of subtask 1 and subtask 2 respectively.

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NLP-IIS@UT at SemEval-2021 Task 4: Machine Reading Comprehension using the Long Document Transformer
Hossein Basafa | Sajad Movahedi | Ali Ebrahimi | Azadeh Shakery | Heshaam Faili

This paper presents a technical report of our submission to the 4th task of SemEval-2021, titled: Reading Comprehension of Abstract Meaning. In this task, we want to predict the correct answer based on a question given a context. Usually, contexts are very lengthy and require a large receptive field from the model. Thus, common contextualized language models like BERT miss fine representation and performance due to the limited capacity of the input tokens. To tackle this problem, we used the longformer model to better process the sequences. Furthermore, we utilized the method proposed in the longformer benchmark on wikihop dataset which improved the accuracy on our task data from (23.01% and 22.95%) achieved by the baselines for subtask 1 and 2, respectively, to (70.30% and 64.38%).

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IITK@Detox at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Semi-Supervised Learning and Dice Loss for Toxic Spans Detection
Archit Bansal | Abhay Kaushik | Ashutosh Modi

In this work, we present our approach and findings for SemEval-2021 Task 5 - Toxic Spans Detection. The task’s main aim was to identify spans to which a given text’s toxicity could be attributed. The task is challenging mainly due to two constraints: the small training dataset and imbalanced class distribution. Our paper investigates two techniques, semi-supervised learning and learning with Self-Adjusting Dice Loss, for tackling these challenges. Our submitted system (ranked ninth on the leader board) consisted of an ensemble of various pre-trained Transformer Language Models trained using either of the above-proposed techniques.

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UniParma at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Toxic Spans Detection Using CharacterBERT and Bag-of-Words Model
Akbar Karimi | Leonardo Rossi | Andrea Prati

With the ever-increasing availability of digital information, toxic content is also on the rise. Therefore, the detection of this type of language is of paramount importance. We tackle this problem utilizing a combination of a state-of-the-art pre-trained language model (CharacterBERT) and a traditional bag-of-words technique. Since the content is full of toxic words that have not been written according to their dictionary spelling, attendance to individual characters is crucial. Therefore, we use CharacterBERT to extract features based on the word characters. It consists of a CharacterCNN module that learns character embeddings from the context. These are, then, fed into the well-known BERT architecture. The bag-of-words method, on the other hand, further improves upon that by making sure that some frequently used toxic words get labeled accordingly. With a ∼4 percent difference from the first team, our system ranked 36 th in the competition. The code is available for further research and reproduction of the results.

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UPB at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Virtual Adversarial Training for Toxic Spans Detection
Andrei Paraschiv | Dumitru-Clementin Cercel | Mihai Dascalu

The real-world impact of polarization and toxicity in the online sphere marked the end of 2020 and the beginning of this year in a negative way. Semeval-2021, Task 5 - Toxic Spans Detection is based on a novel annotation of a subset of the Jigsaw Unintended Bias dataset and is the first language toxicity detection task dedicated to identifying the toxicity-level spans. For this task, participants had to automatically detect character spans in short comments that render the message as toxic. Our model considers applying Virtual Adversarial Training in a semi-supervised setting during the fine-tuning process of several Transformer-based models (i.e., BERT and RoBERTa), in combination with Conditional Random Fields. Our approach leads to performance improvements and more robust models, enabling us to achieve an F1-score of 65.73% in the official submission and an F1-score of 66.13% after further tuning during post-evaluation.

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NLRG at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Toxic Spans Detection Leveraging BERT-based Token Classification and Span Prediction Techniques
Gunjan Chhablani | Abheesht Sharma | Harshit Pandey | Yash Bhartia | Shan Suthaharan

Toxicity detection of text has been a popular NLP task in the recent years. In SemEval-2021 Task-5 Toxic Spans Detection, the focus is on detecting toxic spans within English passages. Most state-of-the-art span detection approaches employ various techniques, each of which can be broadly classified into Token Classification or Span Prediction approaches. In our paper, we explore simple versions of both of these approaches and their performance on the task. Specifically, we use BERT-based models - BERT, RoBERTa, and SpanBERT for both approaches. We also combine these approaches and modify them to bring improvements for Toxic Spans prediction. To this end, we investigate results on four hybrid approaches - Multi-Span, Span+Token, LSTM-CRF, and a combination of predicted offsets using union/intersection. Additionally, we perform a thorough ablative analysis and analyze our observed results. Our best submission - a combination of SpanBERT Span Predictor and RoBERTa Token Classifier predictions - achieves an F1 score of 0.6753 on the test set. Our best post-eval F1 score is 0.6895 on intersection of predicted offsets from top-3 RoBERTa Token Classification checkpoints. These approaches improve the performance by 3% on average than those of the shared baseline models - RNNSL and SpaCy NER.

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UoB at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Extending Pre-Trained Language Models to Include Task and Domain-Specific Information for Toxic Span Prediction
Erik Yan | Harish Tayyar Madabushi

Toxicity is pervasive in social media and poses a major threat to the health of online communities. The recent introduction of pre-trained language models, which have achieved state-of-the-art results in many NLP tasks, has transformed the way in which we approach natural language processing. However, the inherent nature of pre-training means that they are unlikely to capture task-specific statistical information or learn domain-specific knowledge. Additionally, most implementations of these models typically do not employ conditional random fields, a method for simultaneous token classification. We show that these modifications can improve model performance on the Toxic Spans Detection task at SemEval-2021 to achieve a score within 4 percentage points of the top performing team.

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Cisco at SemEval-2021 Task 5: What’s Toxic?: Leveraging Transformers for Multiple Toxic Span Extraction from Online Comments
Sreyan Ghosh | Sonal Kumar

Social network platforms are generally used to share positive, constructive, and insightful content. However, in recent times, people often get exposed to objectionable content like threat, identity attacks, hate speech, insults, obscene texts, offensive remarks or bullying. Existing work on toxic speech detection focuses on binary classification or on differentiating toxic speech among a small set of categories. This paper describes the system proposed by team Cisco for SemEval-2021 Task 5: Toxic Spans Detection, the first shared task focusing on detecting the spans in the text that attribute to its toxicity, in English language. We approach this problem primarily in two ways: a sequence tagging approach and a dependency parsing approach. In our sequence tagging approach we tag each token in a sentence under a particular tagging scheme. Our best performing architecture in this approach also proved to be our best performing architecture overall with an F1 score of 0.6922, thereby placing us 7th on the final evaluation phase leaderboard. We also explore a dependency parsing approach where we extract spans from the input sentence under the supervision of target span boundaries and rank our spans using a biaffine model. Finally, we also provide a detailed analysis of our results and model performance in our paper.

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MedAI at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Start-to-end Tagging Framework for Toxic Spans Detection
Zhen Wang | Hongjie Fan | Junfei Liu

This paper describes the system submitted to SemEval 2021 Task 5: Toxic Spans Detection. The task concerns evaluating systems that detect the spans that make a text toxic when detecting such spans are possible. To address the possibly multi-span detection problem, we develop a start-to-end tagging framework on top of RoBERTa based language model. Besides, we design a custom loss function that takes distance into account. In comparison to other participating teams, our system has achieved 69.03% F1 score, which is slightly lower (-1.8 and -1.73) than the top 1(70.83%) and top 2 (70.77%), respectively.

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HamiltonDinggg at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Investigating Toxic Span Detection using RoBERTa Pre-training
Huiyang Ding | David Jurgens

This paper presents our system submission to task 5: Toxic Spans Detection of the SemEval-2021 competition. The competition aims at detecting the spans that make a toxic span toxic. In this paper, we demonstrate our system for detecting toxic spans, which includes expanding the toxic training set with Local Interpretable Model-Agnostic Explanations (LIME), fine-tuning RoBERTa model for detection, and error analysis. We found that feeding the model with an expanded training set using Reddit comments of polarized-toxicity and labeling with LIME on top of logistic regression classification could help RoBERTa more accurately learn to recognize toxic spans. We achieved a span-level F1 score of 0.6715 on the testing phase. Our quantitative and qualitative results show that the predictions from our system could be a good supplement to the gold training set’s annotations.

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WVOQ at SemEval-2021 Task 6: BART for Span Detection and Classification
Cees Roele

Simultaneous span detection and classification is a task not currently addressed in standard NLP frameworks. The present paper describes why and how an EncoderDecoder model was used to combine span detection and classification to address subtask 2 of SemEval-2021 Task 6.

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HumorHunter at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Humor and Offense Recognition with Disentangled Attention
Yubo Xie | Junze Li | Pearl Pu

In this paper, we describe our system submitted to SemEval 2021 Task 7: HaHackathon: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense. The task aims at predicting whether the given text is humorous, the average humor rating given by the annotators, and whether the humor rating is controversial. In addition, the task also involves predicting how offensive the text is. Our approach adopts the DeBERTa architecture with disentangled attention mechanism, where the attention scores between words are calculated based on their content vectors and relative position vectors. We also took advantage of the pre-trained language models and fine-tuned the DeBERTa model on all the four subtasks. We experimented with several BERT-like structures and found that the large DeBERTa model generally performs better. During the evaluation phase, our system achieved an F-score of 0.9480 on subtask 1a, an RMSE of 0.5510 on subtask 1b, an F-score of 0.4764 on subtask 1c, and an RMSE of 0.4230 on subtask 2a (rank 3 on the leaderboard).

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Grenzlinie at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense
Renyuan Liu | Xiaobing Zhou

This paper introduces the result of Team Grenzlinie’s experiment in SemEval-2021 task 7: HaHackathon: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense. This task has two subtasks. Subtask1 includes the humor detection task, the humor rating prediction task, and the humor controversy detection task. Subtask2 is an offensive rating prediction task. Detection task is a binary classification task, and the rating prediction task is a regression task between 0 to 5. 0 means the task is not humorous or not offensive, 5 means the task is very humorous or very offensive. For all the tasks, this paper chooses RoBERTa as the pre-trained model. In classification tasks, Bi-LSTM and adversarial training are adopted. In the regression task, the Bi-LSTM is also adopted. And then we propose a new approach named compare method. Finally, our system achieves an F1-score of 95.05% in the humor detection task, F1-score of 61.74% in the humor controversy detection task, 0.6143 RMSE in humor rating task, 0.4761 RMSE in the offensive rating task on the test datasets.

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abcbpc at SemEval-2021 Task 7: ERNIE-based Multi-task Model for Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense
Chao Pang | Xiaoran Fan | Weiyue Su | Xuyi Chen | Shuohuan Wang | Jiaxiang Liu | Xuan Ouyang | Shikun Feng | Yu Sun

This paper describes our system participated in Task 7 of SemEval-2021: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense. The task is designed to detect and score humor and offense which are influenced by subjective factors. In order to obtain semantic information from a large amount of unlabeled data, we applied unsupervised pre-trained language models. By conducting research and experiments, we found that the ERNIE 2.0 and DeBERTa pre-trained models achieved impressive performance in various subtasks. Therefore, we applied the above pre-trained models to fine-tune the downstream neural network. In the process of fine-tuning the model, we adopted multi-task training strategy and ensemble learning method. Based on the above strategy and method, we achieved RMSE of 0.4959 for subtask 1b, and finally won the first place.

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Humor@IITK at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Large Language Models for Quantifying Humor and Offensiveness
Aishwarya Gupta | Avik Pal | Bholeshwar Khurana | Lakshay Tyagi | Ashutosh Modi

Humor and Offense are highly subjective due to multiple word senses, cultural knowledge, and pragmatic competence. Hence, accurately detecting humorous and offensive texts has several compelling use cases in Recommendation Systems and Personalized Content Moderation. However, due to the lack of an extensive labeled dataset, most prior works in this domain haven’t explored large neural models for subjective humor understanding. This paper explores whether large neural models and their ensembles can capture the intricacies associated with humor/offense detection and rating. Our experiments on the SemEval-2021 Task 7: HaHackathon show that we can develop reasonable humor and offense detection systems with such models. Our models are ranked 3rd in subtask 1b and consistently ranked around the top 33% of the leaderboard for the remaining subtasks.

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RoMa at SemEval-2021 Task 7: A Transformer-based Approach for Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense
Roberto Labadie | Mariano Jason Rodriguez | Reynier Ortega | Paolo Rosso

In this paper we describe the systems used by the RoMa team in the shared task on Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense (HaHackathon) at SemEval 2021. Our systems rely on data representations learned through fine-tuned neural language models. Particularly, we explore two distinct architectures. The first one is based on a Siamese Neural Network (SNN) combined with a graph-based clustering method. The SNN model is used for learning a latent space where instances of humor and non-humor can be distinguished. The clustering method is applied to build prototypes of both classes which are used for training and classifying new messages. The second one combines neural language model representations with a linear regression model which makes the final ratings. Our systems achieved the best results for humor classification using model one, whereas for offensive and humor rating the second model obtained better performance. In the case of the controversial humor prediction, the most significant improvement was achieved by a fine-tuning of the neural language model. In general, the results achieved are encouraging and give us a starting point for further improvements.

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SemEval-2021 Task 8: MeasEval – Extracting Counts and Measurements and their Related Contexts
Corey Harper | Jessica Cox | Curt Kohler | Antony Scerri | Ron Daniel Jr. | Paul Groth

We describe MeasEval, a SemEval task of extracting counts, measurements, and related context from scientific documents, which is of significant importance to the creation of Knowledge Graphs that distill information from the scientific literature. This is a new task in 2021, for which over 75 submissions from 25 participants were received. We expect the data developed for this task and the findings reported to be valuable to the scientific knowledge extraction, metrology, and automated knowledge base construction communities.

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SemEval-2021 Task 9: Fact Verification and Evidence Finding for Tabular Data in Scientific Documents (SEM-TAB-FACTS)
Nancy X. R. Wang | Diwakar Mahajan | Marina Danilevsky | Sara Rosenthal

Understanding tables is an important and relevant task that involves understanding table structure as well as being able to compare and contrast information within cells. In this paper, we address this challenge by presenting a new dataset and tasks that addresses this goal in a shared task in SemEval 2020 Task 9: Fact Verification and Evidence Finding for Tabular Data in Scientific Documents (SEM-TAB-FACTS). Our dataset contains 981 manually-generated tables and an auto-generated dataset of 1980 tables providing over 180K statement and over 16M evidence annotations. SEM-TAB-FACTS featured two sub-tasks. In sub-task A, the goal was to determine if a statement is supported, refuted or unknown in relation to a table. In sub-task B, the focus was on identifying the specific cells of a table that provide evidence for the statement. 69 teams signed up to participate in the task with 19 successful submissions to subtask A and 12 successful submissions to subtask B. We present our results and main findings from the competition.

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BreakingBERT@IITK at SemEval-2021 Task 9: Statement Verification and Evidence Finding with Tables
Aditya Jindal | Ankur Gupta | Jaya Srivastava | Preeti Menghwani | Vijit Malik | Vishesh Kaushik | Ashutosh Modi

Recently, there has been an interest in the research on factual verification and prediction over structured data like tables and graphs. To circumvent any false news incident, it is necessary to not only model and predict over structured data efficiently but also to explain those predictions. In this paper, as the part of the SemEval-2021 Task 9, we tackle the problem of fact verification and evidence finding over tabular data. There are two subtasks, in which given a table and a statement/fact, the subtask A is to determine whether the statement is inferred from the tabular data and the subtask B is to determine which cells in the table provide evidence for the former subtask. We make a comparison of the baselines and state of the art approaches over the given SemTabFact dataset. We also propose a novel approach CellBERT to solve the task of evidence finding, as a form of Natural Language Inference task. We obtain a 3-way F1 score of 0.69 on subtask A and an F1 score of 0.65 on subtask B.

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SemEval-2021 Task 12: Learning with Disagreements
Alexandra Uma | Tommaso Fornaciari | Anca Dumitrache | Tristan Miller | Jon Chamberlain | Barbara Plank | Edwin Simpson | Massimo Poesio

Disagreement between coders is ubiquitous in virtually all datasets annotated with human judgements in both natural language processing and computer vision. However, most supervised machine learning methods assume that a single preferred interpretation exists for each item, which is at best an idealization. The aim of the SemEval-2021 shared task on learning with disagreements (Le-Wi-Di) was to provide a unified testing framework for methods for learning from data containing multiple and possibly contradictory annotations covering the best-known datasets containing information about disagreements for interpreting language and classifying images. In this paper we describe the shared task and its results.

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SemEval-2021 Task 10: Source-Free Domain Adaptation for Semantic Processing
Egoitz Laparra | Xin Su | Yiyun Zhao | Özlem Uzuner | Timothy Miller | Steven Bethard

This paper presents the Source-Free Domain Adaptation shared task held within SemEval-2021. The aim of the task was to explore adaptation of machine-learning models in the face of data sharing constraints. Specifically, we consider the scenario where annotations exist for a domain but cannot be shared. Instead, participants are provided with models trained on that (source) data. Participants also receive some labeled data from a new (development) domain on which to explore domain adaptation algorithms. Participants are then tested on data representing a new (target) domain. We explored this scenario with two different semantic tasks: negation detection (a text classification task) and time expression recognition (a sequence tagging task).

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BLCUFIGHT at SemEval-2021 Task 10: Novel Unsupervised Frameworks For Source-Free Domain Adaptation
Weikang Wang | Yi Wu | Yixiang Liu | Pengyuan Liu

Domain adaptation assumes that samples from source and target domains are freely accessible during a training phase. However, such assumption is rarely plausible in the real-world and may causes data-privacy issues, especially when the label of the source domain can be a sensitive attribute as an identifier. SemEval-2021 task 10 focuses on these issues. We participate in the task and propose novel frameworks based on self-training method. In our systems, two different frameworks are designed to solve text classification and sequence labeling. These approaches are tested to be effective which ranks the third among all system in subtask A, and ranks the first among all system in subtask B.

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SemEval-2021 Task 11: NLPContributionGraph - Structuring Scholarly NLP Contributions for a Research Knowledge Graph
Jennifer D’Souza | Sören Auer | Ted Pedersen

There is currently a gap between the natural language expression of scholarly publications and their structured semantic content modeling to enable intelligent content search. With the volume of research growing exponentially every year, a search feature operating over semantically structured content is compelling. The SemEval-2021 Shared Task NLPContributionGraph (a.k.a. ‘the NCG task’) tasks participants to develop automated systems that structure contributions from NLP scholarly articles in the English language. Being the first-of-its-kind in the SemEval series, the task released structured data from NLP scholarly articles at three levels of information granularity, i.e. at sentence-level, phrase-level, and phrases organized as triples toward Knowledge Graph (KG) building. The sentence-level annotations comprised the few sentences about the article’s contribution. The phrase-level annotations were scientific term and predicate phrases from the contribution sentences. Finally, the triples constituted the research overview KG. For the Shared Task, participating systems were then expected to automatically classify contribution sentences, extract scientific terms and relations from the sentences, and organize them as KG triples. Overall, the task drew a strong participation demographic of seven teams and 27 participants. The best end-to-end task system classified contribution sentences at 57.27% F1, phrases at 46.41% F1, and triples at 22.28% F1. While the absolute performance to generate triples remains low, as conclusion to the article, the difficulty of producing such data and as a consequence of modeling it is highlighted.

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UIUC_BioNLP at SemEval-2021 Task 11: A Cascade of Neural Models for Structuring Scholarly NLP Contributions
Haoyang Liu | M. Janina Sarol | Halil Kilicoglu

We propose a cascade of neural models that performs sentence classification, phrase recognition, and triple extraction to automatically structure the scholarly contributions of NLP publications. To identify the most important contribution sentences in a paper, we used a BERT-based classifier with positional features (Subtask 1). A BERT-CRF model was used to recognize and characterize relevant phrases in contribution sentences (Subtask 2). We categorized the triples into several types based on whether and how their elements were expressed in text, and addressed each type using separate BERT-based classifiers as well as rules (Subtask 3). Our system was officially ranked second in Phase 1 evaluation and first in both parts of Phase 2 evaluation. After fixing a submission error in Pharse 1, our approach yields the best results overall. In this paper, in addition to a system description, we also provide further analysis of our results, highlighting its strengths and limitations. We make our code publicly available at https://github.com/Liu-Hy/nlp-contrib-graph.

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KGP at SemEval-2021 Task 8: Leveraging Multi-Staged Language Models for Extracting Measurements, their Attributes and Relations
Neel Karia | Ayush Kaushal | Faraaz Mallick

SemEval-2021 Task 8: MeasEval aims at improving the machine understanding of measurements in scientific texts through a set of entity and semantic relation extraction sub-tasks on identifying quantity spans along with various attributes and relationships. This paper describes our system, consisting of a three-stage pipeline, that leverages pre-trained language models to extract the quantity spans in the text, followed by intelligent templates to identify units and modifiers. Finally, it identifies the quantity attributes and their relations using language models boosted with a feature re-using hierarchical architecture and multi-task learning. Our submission significantly outperforms the baseline, with the best model from the post-evaluation phase delivering more than 100% increase on F1 (Overall) from the baseline.

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DPR at SemEval-2021 Task 8: Dynamic Path Reasoning for Measurement Relation Extraction
Amir Pouran Ben Veyseh | Franck Dernoncourt | Thien Huu Nguyen

Scientific documents are replete with measurements mentioned in various formats and styles. As such, in a document with multiple quantities and measured entities, the task of associating each quantity to its corresponding measured entity is challenging. Thus, it is necessary to have a method to efficiently extract all measurements and attributes related to them. To this end, in this paper, we propose a novel model for the task of measurement relation extraction (MRE) whose goal is to recognize the relation between measured entities, quantities, and conditions mentioned in a document. Our model employs a deep translation-based architecture to dynamically induce the important words in the document to classify the relation between a pair of entities. Furthermore, we introduce a novel regularization technique based on Information Bottleneck (IB) to filter out the noisy information from the induced set of important words. Our experiments on the recent SemEval 2021 Task 8 datasets reveal the effectiveness of the proposed model.

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CLaC-np at SemEval-2021 Task 8: Dependency DGCNN
Nihatha Lathiff | Pavel PK Khloponin | Sabine Bergler

MeasEval aims at identifying quantities along with the entities that are measured with additional properties within English scientific documents. The variety of styles used makes measurements, a most crucial aspect of scientific writing, challenging to extract. This paper presents ablation studies making the case for several preprocessing steps such as specialized tokenization rules. For linguistic structure, we encode dependency trees in a Deep Graph Convolution Network (DGCNN) for multi-task classification.

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CLaC-BP at SemEval-2021 Task 8: SciBERT Plus Rules for MeasEval
Benjamin Therien | Parsa Bagherzadeh | Sabine Bergler

This paper explains the design of a heterogeneous system that ranked eighth in competition in SemEval2021 Task 8. We analyze ablation experiments and demonstrate how the system components, namely tokenizer, unit identifier, modifier classifier, and language model, affect the overall score. We compare our results to similar experiments from the literature and introduce a grouping algorithm developed in the post-evaluation phase that increased our system’s overall score, hypothetically elevating our competition rank from eight to six.

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THiFly_Queens at SemEval-2021 Task 9: Two-stage Statement Verification with Adaptive Ensembling and Slot-based Operation
Yuxuan Zhou | Kaiyin Zhou | Xien Liu | Ji Wu | Xiaodan Zhu

This paper describes our system for verifying statements with tables at SemEval-2021 Task 9. We developed a two-stage verifying system based on the latest table-based pre-trained model GraPPa. Multiple networks are devised to verify different types of statements in the competition dataset and an adaptive model ensembling technique is applied to ensemble models in both stages. A statement-slot-based symbolic operation module is also used in our system to further improve the performance and stability of the system. Our model achieves second place in the 3-way classification and fourth place in the 2-way classification evaluation. Several ablation experiments show the effectiveness of different modules proposed in this paper.

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TAPAS at SemEval-2021 Task 9: Reasoning over tables with intermediate pre-training
Thomas Müller | Julian Eisenschlos | Syrine Krichene

We present the TAPAS contribution to the Shared Task on Statement Verification and Evidence Finding with Tables (SemEval 2021 Task 9, Wang et al. (2021)). SEM TAB FACT Task A is a classification task of recognizing if a statement is entailed, neutral or refuted by the content of a given table. We adopt the binary TAPAS model of Eisenschlos et al. (2020) to this task. We learn two binary classification models: A first model to predict if a statement is neutral or non-neutral and a second one to predict if it is entailed or refuted. As the shared task training set contains only entailed or refuted examples, we generate artificial neutral examples to train the first model. Both models are pre-trained using a MASKLM objective, intermediate counter-factual and synthetic data (Eisenschlos et al., 2020) and TABFACT (Chen et al., 2020), a large table entailment dataset. We find that the artificial neutral examples are somewhat effective at training the first model, achieving 68.03 test F1 versus the 60.47 of a majority baseline. For the second stage, we find that the pre-training on the intermediate data and TABFACT improves the results over MASKLM pre-training (68.03 vs 57.01).

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BOUN at SemEval-2021 Task 9: Text Augmentation Techniques for Fact Verification in Tabular Data
Abdullatif Köksal | Yusuf Yüksel | Bekir Yıldırım | Arzucan Özgür

In this paper, we present our text augmentation based approach for the Table Statement Support Subtask (Phase A) of SemEval-2021 Task 9. We experiment with different text augmentation techniques such as back translation and synonym swapping using Word2Vec and WordNet. We show that text augmentation techniques lead to 2.5% improvement in F1 on the test set. Further, we investigate the impact of domain adaptation and joint learning on fact verification in tabular data by utilizing the SemTabFacts and TabFact datasets. We observe that joint learning improves the F1 scores on the SemTabFacts and TabFact test sets by 3.31% and 0.77%, respectively.

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IITK at SemEval-2021 Task 10: Source-Free Unsupervised Domain Adaptation using Class Prototypes
Harshit Kumar | Jinang Shah | Nidhi Hegde | Priyanshu Gupta | Vaibhav Jindal | Ashutosh Modi

Recent progress in deep learning has primarily been fueled by the availability of large amounts of annotated data that is obtained from highly expensive manual annotating pro-cesses. To tackle this issue of availability of annotated data, a lot of research has been done on unsupervised domain adaptation that tries to generate systems for an unlabelled target domain data, given labeled source domain data. However, the availability of annotated or labelled source domain dataset can’t always be guaranteed because of data-privacy issues. This is especially the case with medical data, as it may contain sensitive information of the patients. Source-free domain adaptation (SFDA) aims to resolve this issue by us-ing models trained on the source data instead of using the original annotated source data. In this work, we try to build SFDA systems for semantic processing by specifically focusing on the negation detection subtask of the SemEval2021 Task 10. We propose two approaches -ProtoAUGandAdapt-ProtoAUGthat use the idea of self-entropy to choose reliable and high confidence samples, which are then used for data augmentation and subsequent training of the models. Our methods report an improvement of up to 7% in F1 score over the baseline for the Negation Detection subtask.

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PTST-UoM at SemEval-2021 Task 10: Parsimonious Transfer for Sequence Tagging
Kemal Kurniawan | Lea Frermann | Philip Schulz | Trevor Cohn

This paper describes PTST, a source-free unsupervised domain adaptation technique for sequence tagging, and its application to the SemEval-2021 Task 10 on time expression recognition. PTST is an extension of the cross-lingual parsimonious parser transfer framework, which uses high-probability predictions of the source model as a supervision signal in self-training. We extend the framework to a sequence prediction setting, and demonstrate its applicability to unsupervised domain adaptation. PTST achieves F1 score of 79.6% on the official test set, with the precision of 90.1%, the highest out of 14 submissions.

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Self-Adapter at SemEval-2021 Task 10: Entropy-based Pseudo-Labeler for Source-free Domain Adaptation
Sangwon Yoon | Yanghoon Kim | Kyomin Jung

Source-free domain adaptation is an emerging line of work in deep learning research since it is closely related to the real-world environment. We study the domain adaption in the sequence labeling problem where the model trained on the source domain data is given. We propose two methods: Self-Adapter and Selective Classifier Training. Self-Adapter is a training method that uses sentence-level pseudo-labels filtered by the self-entropy threshold to provide supervision to the whole model. Selective Classifier Training uses token-level pseudo-labels and supervises only the classification layer of the model. The proposed methods are evaluated on data provided by SemEval-2021 task 10 and Self-Adapter achieves 2nd rank performance.

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The University of Arizona at SemEval-2021 Task 10: Applying Self-training, Active Learning and Data Augmentation to Source-free Domain Adaptation
Xin Su | Yiyun Zhao | Steven Bethard

This paper describes our systems for negation detection and time expression recognition in SemEval 2021 Task 10, Source-Free Domain Adaptation for Semantic Processing. We show that self-training, active learning and data augmentation techniques can improve the generalization ability of the model on the unlabeled target domain data without accessing source domain data. We also perform detailed ablation studies and error analyses for our time expression recognition systems to identify the source of the performance improvement and give constructive feedback on the temporal normalization annotation guidelines.

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KnowGraph@IITK at SemEval-2021 Task 11: Building Knowledge Graph for NLP Research
Shashank Shailabh | Sajal Chaurasia | Ashutosh Modi

Research in Natural Language Processing is making rapid advances, resulting in the publication of a large number of research papers. Finding relevant research papers and their contribution to the domain is a challenging problem. In this paper, we address this challenge via the SemEval 2021 Task 11: NLPContributionGraph, by developing a system for a research paper contributions-focused knowledge graph over Natural Language Processing literature. The task is divided into three sub-tasks: extracting contribution sentences that show important contributions in the research article, extracting phrases from the contribution sentences, and predicting the information units in the research article together with triplet formation from the phrases. The proposed system is agnostic to the subject domain and can be applied for building a knowledge graph for any area. We found that transformer-based language models can significantly improve existing techniques and utilized the SciBERT-based model. Our first sub-task uses Bidirectional LSTM (BiLSTM) stacked on top of SciBERT model layers, while the second sub-task uses Conditional Random Field (CRF) on top of SciBERT with BiLSTM. The third sub-task uses a combined SciBERT based neural approach with heuristics for information unit prediction and triplet formation from the phrases. Our system achieved F1 score of 0.38, 0.63 and 0.76 in end-to-end pipeline testing, phrase extraction testing and triplet extraction testing respectively.

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YNU-HPCC at SemEval-2021 Task 11: Using a BERT Model to Extract Contributions from NLP Scholarly Articles
Xinge Ma | Jin Wang | Xuejie Zhang

This paper describes the system we built as the YNU-HPCC team in the SemEval-2021 Task 11: NLPContributionGraph. This task involves first identifying sentences in the given natural language processing (NLP) scholarly articles that reflect research contributions through binary classification; then identifying the core scientific terms and their relation phrases from these contribution sentences by sequence labeling; and finally, these scientific terms and relation phrases are categorized, identified, and organized into subject-predicate-object triples to form a knowledge graph with the help of multiclass classification and multi-label classification. We developed a system for this task using a pre-trained language representation model called BERT that stands for Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers, and achieved good results. The average F1-score for Evaluation Phase 2, Part 1 was 0.4562 and ranked 7th, and the average F1-score for Evaluation Phase 2, Part 2 was 0.6541, and also ranked 7th.

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ITNLP at SemEval-2021 Task 11: Boosting BERT with Sampling and Adversarial Training for Knowledge Extraction
Genyu Zhang | Yu Su | Changhong He | Lei Lin | Chengjie Sun | Lili Shan

This paper describes the winning system in the End-to-end Pipeline phase for the NLPContributionGraph task. The system is composed of three BERT-based models and the three models are used to extract sentences, entities and triples respectively. Experiments show that sampling and adversarial training can greatly boost the system. In End-to-end Pipeline phase, our system got an average F1 of 0.4703, significantly higher than the second-placed system which got an average F1 of 0.3828.

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Duluth at SemEval-2021 Task 11: Applying DeBERTa to Contributing Sentence Selection and Dependency Parsing for Entity Extraction
Anna Martin | Ted Pedersen

This paper describes the Duluth system that participated in SemEval-2021 Task 11, NLP Contribution Graph. It details the extraction of contribution sentences and scientific entities and their relations from scholarly articles in the domain of Natural Language Processing. Our solution uses deBERTa for multi-class sentence classification to extract the contributing sentences and their type, and dependency parsing to outline each sentence and extract subject-predicate-object triples. Our system ranked fifth of seven for Phase 1: end-to-end pipeline, sixth of eight for Phase 2 Part 1: phrases and triples, and fifth of eight for Phase 2 Part 2: triples extraction.

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INNOVATORS at SemEval-2021 Task-11: A Dependency Parsing and BERT-based model for Extracting Contribution Knowledge from Scientific Papers
Hardik Arora | Tirthankar Ghosal | Sandeep Kumar | Suraj Patwal | Phil Gooch

In this work, we describe our system submission to the SemEval 2021 Task 11: NLP Contribution Graph Challenge. We attempt all the three sub-tasks in the challenge and report our results. Subtask 1 aims to identify the contributing sentences in a given publication. Subtask 2 follows from Subtask 1 to extract the scientific term and predicate phrases from the identified contributing sentences. The final Subtask 3 entails extracting triples (subject, predicate, object) from the phrases and categorizing them under one or more defined information units. With the NLPContributionGraph Shared Task, the organizers formalized the building of a scholarly contributions-focused graph over NLP scholarly articles as an automated task. Our approaches include a BERT-based classification model for identifying the contributing sentences in a research publication, a rule-based dependency parsing for phrase extraction, followed by a CNN-based model for information units classification, and a set of rules for triples extraction. The quantitative results show that we obtain the 5th, 5th, and 7th rank respectively in three evaluation phases. We make our codes available at https://github.com/HardikArora17/SemEval-2021-INNOVATORS.

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MCL@IITK at SemEval-2021 Task 2: Multilingual and Cross-lingual Word-in-Context Disambiguation using Augmented Data, Signals, and Transformers
Rohan Gupta | Jay Mundra | Deepak Mahajan | Ashutosh Modi

In this work, we present our approach for solving the SemEval 2021 Task 2: Multilingual and Cross-lingual Word-in-Context Disambiguation (MCL-WiC). The task is a sentence pair classification problem where the goal is to detect whether a given word common to both the sentences evokes the same meaning. We submit systems for both the settings - Multilingual (the pair’s sentences belong to the same language) and Cross-Lingual (the pair’s sentences belong to different languages). The training data is provided only in English. Consequently, we employ cross-lingual transfer techniques. Our approach employs fine-tuning pre-trained transformer-based language models, like ELECTRA and ALBERT, for the English task and XLM-R for all other tasks. To improve these systems’ performance, we propose adding a signal to the word to be disambiguated and augmenting our data by sentence pair reversal. We further augment the dataset provided to us with WiC, XL-WiC and SemCor 3.0. Using ensembles, we achieve strong performance in the Multilingual task, placing first in the EN-EN and FR-FR sub-tasks. For the Cross-Lingual setting, we employed translate-test methods and a zero-shot method, using our multilingual models, with the latter performing slightly better.

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HITSZ-HLT at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Ensemble Sequence Labeling and Span Boundary Detection for Toxic Span Detection
Qinglin Zhu | Zijie Lin | Yice Zhang | Jingyi Sun | Xiang Li | Qihui Lin | Yixue Dang | Ruifeng Xu

This paper presents the winning system that participated in SemEval-2021 Task 5: Toxic Spans Detection. This task aims to locate those spans that attribute to the text’s toxicity within a text, which is crucial for semi-automated moderation in online discussions. We formalize this task as the Sequence Labeling (SL) problem and the Span Boundary Detection (SBD) problem separately and employ three state-of-the-art models. Next, we integrate predictions of these models to produce a more credible and complement result. Our system achieves a char-level score of 70.83%, ranking 1/91. In addition, we also explore the lexicon-based method, which is strongly interpretable and flexible in practice.

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SarcasmDet at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Detect Humor and Offensive based on Demographic Factors using RoBERTa Pre-trained Model
Dalya Faraj | Malak Abdullah

This paper presents one of the top winning solution systems for task 7 at SemEval2021, HaHackathon: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense. This competition is divided into two tasks, task1 with three sub-tasks 1a,1b, and 1c, and task2. The goal for task1 is to predict if the text would be considered humorous or not, and if it is yes, then predict how humorous it is and whether the humor rating would be perceived as controversial. The goal of the task2 is to predict how the text is considered offensive for users in general. Our solution has been developed using RoBERTa pre-trained model with ensemble techniques. The paper describes the submitted solution system’s architecture with the experiments and the hyperparameter tuning that led to this robust system. Our model ranked third and fourth places out of 50 teams in tasks 1c and 1a with F1-Score of 0.6270 and 0.9675, respectively. At the same time, the model ranked one of the top 10 models in task 1b and task 2 with an RMSE scores of 0.5446 and 0.4469, respectively.

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UPB at SemEval-2021 Task 8: Extracting Semantic Information on Measurements as Multi-Turn Question Answering
Andrei-Marius Avram | George-Eduard Zaharia | Dumitru-Clementin Cercel | Mihai Dascalu

Extracting semantic information on measurements and counts is an important topic in terms of analyzing scientific discourses. The 8th task of SemEval-2021: Counts and Measurements (MeasEval) aimed to boost research in this direction by providing a new dataset on which participants train their models to extract meaningful information on measurements from scientific texts. The competition is composed of five subtasks that build on top of each other: (1) quantity span identification, (2) unit extraction from the identified quantities and their value modifier classification, (3) span identification for measured entities and measured properties, (4) qualifier span identification, and (5) relation extraction between the identified quantities, measured entities, measured properties, and qualifiers. We approached these challenges by first identifying the quantities, extracting their units of measurement, classifying them with corresponding modifiers, and afterwards using them to jointly solve the last three subtasks in a multi-turn question answering manner. Our best performing model obtained an overlapping F1-score of 36.91% on the test set.

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IITK@LCP at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Classification for Lexical Complexity Regression Task
Neil Shirude | Sagnik Mukherjee | Tushar Shandhilya | Ananta Mukherjee | Ashutosh Modi

This paper describes our contribution to SemEval 2021 Task 1 (Shardlow et al., 2021): Lexical Complexity Prediction. In our approach, we leverage the ELECTRA model and attempt to mirror the data annotation scheme. Although the task is a regression task, we show that we can treat it as an aggregation of several classification and regression models. This somewhat counter-intuitive approach achieved an MAE score of 0.0654 for Sub-Task 1 and MAE of 0.0811 on Sub-Task 2. Additionally, we used the concept of weak supervision signals from Gloss-BERT in our work, and it significantly improved the MAE score in Sub-Task 1.

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LCP-RIT at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Exploring Linguistic Features for Lexical Complexity Prediction
Abhinandan Tejalkumar Desai | Kai North | Marcos Zampieri | Christopher Homan

This paper describes team LCP-RIT’s submission to the SemEval-2021 Task 1: Lexical Complexity Prediction (LCP). The task organizers provided participants with an augmented version of CompLex (Shardlow et al., 2020), an English multi-domain dataset in which words in context were annotated with respect to their complexity using a five point Likert scale. Our system uses logistic regression and a wide range of linguistic features (e.g. psycholinguistic features, n-grams, word frequency, POS tags) to predict the complexity of single words in this dataset. We analyze the impact of different linguistic features on the classification performance and we evaluate the results in terms of mean absolute error, mean squared error, Pearson correlation, and Spearman correlation.

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Alejandro Mosquera at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Exploring Sentence and Word Features for Lexical Complexity Prediction
Alejandro Mosquera

This paper revisits feature engineering approaches for predicting the complexity level of English words in a particular context using regression techniques. Our best submission to the Lexical Complexity Prediction (LCP) shared task was ranked 3rd out of 48 systems for sub-task 1 and achieved Pearson correlation coefficients of 0.779 and 0.809 for single words and multi-word expressions respectively. The conclusion is that a combination of lexical, contextual and semantic features can still produce strong baselines when compared against human judgement.

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CompNA at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Prediction of lexical complexity analyzing heterogeneous features
Giuseppe Vettigli | Antonio Sorgente

This paper describes the CompNa model that has been submitted to the Lexical Complexity Prediction (LCP) shared task hosted at SemEval 2021 (Task 1). The solution is based on combining features of different nature through an ensambling method based on Decision Trees and trained using Gradient Boosting. We discuss the results of the model and highlight the features with more predictive capabilities.

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PolyU CBS-Comp at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Lexical Complexity Prediction (LCP)
Rong Xiang | Jinghang Gu | Emmanuele Chersoni | Wenjie Li | Qin Lu | Chu-Ren Huang

In this contribution, we describe the system presented by the PolyU CBS-Comp Team at the Task 1 of SemEval 2021, where the goal was the estimation of the complexity of words in a given sentence context. Our top system, based on a combination of lexical, syntactic, word embeddings and Transformers-derived features and on a Gradient Boosting Regressor, achieves a top correlation score of 0.754 on the subtask 1 for single words and 0.659 on the subtask 2 for multiword expressions.

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LAST at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Improving Multi-Word Complexity Prediction Using Bigram Association Measures
Yves Bestgen

This paper describes the system developed by the Laboratoire d’analyse statistique des textes (LAST) for the Lexical Complexity Prediction shared task at SemEval-2021. The proposed system is made up of a LightGBM model fed with features obtained from many word frequency lists, published lexical norms and psychometric data. For tackling the specificity of the multi-word task, it uses bigram association measures. Despite that the only contextual feature used was sentence length, the system achieved an honorable performance in the multi-word task, but poorer in the single word task. The bigram association measures were found useful, but to a limited extent.

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DeepBlueAI at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Lexical Complexity Prediction with A Deep Ensemble Approach
Chunguang Pan | Bingyan Song | Shengguang Wang | Zhipeng Luo

Lexical complexity plays an important role in reading comprehension. lexical complexity prediction (LCP) can not only be used as a part of Lexical Simplification systems, but also as a stand-alone application to help people better reading. This paper presents the winning system we submitted to the LCP Shared Task of SemEval 2021 that capable of dealing with both two subtasks. We first perform fine-tuning on numbers of pre-trained language models (PLMs) with various hyperparameters and different training strategies such as pseudo-labelling and data augmentation. Then an effective stacking mechanism is applied on top of the fine-tuned PLMs to obtain the final prediction. Experimental results on the Complex dataset show the validity of our method and we rank first and second for subtask 2 and 1.

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CS-UM6P at SemEval-2021 Task 1: A Deep Learning Model-based Pre-trained Transformer Encoder for Lexical Complexity
Nabil El Mamoun | Abdelkader El Mahdaouy | Abdellah El Mekki | Kabil Essefar | Ismail Berrada

Lexical Complexity Prediction (LCP) involves assigning a difficulty score to a particular word or expression, in a text intended for a target audience. In this paper, we introduce a new deep learning-based system for this challenging task. The proposed system consists of a deep learning model, based on pre-trained transformer encoder, for word and Multi-Word Expression (MWE) complexity prediction. First, on top of the encoder’s contextualized word embedding, our model employs an attention layer on the input context and the complex word or MWE. Then, the attention output is concatenated with the pooled output of the encoder and passed to a regression module. We investigate both single-task and joint training on both Sub-Tasks data using multiple pre-trained transformer-based encoders. The obtained results are very promising and show the effectiveness of fine-tuning pre-trained transformers for LCP task.

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Cambridge at SemEval-2021 Task 1: An Ensemble of Feature-Based and Neural Models for Lexical Complexity Prediction
Zheng Yuan | Gladys Tyen | David Strohmaier

This paper describes our submission to the SemEval-2021 shared task on Lexical Complexity Prediction. We approached it as a regression problem and present an ensemble combining four systems, one feature-based and three neural with fine-tuning, frequency pre-training and multi-task learning, achieving Pearson scores of 0.8264 and 0.7556 on the trial and test sets respectively (sub-task 1). We further present our analysis of the results and discuss our findings.

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hub at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Fusion of Sentence and Word Frequency to Predict Lexical Complexity
Bo Huang | Yang Bai | Xiaobing Zhou

In this paper, we propose a method of fusing sentence information and word frequency information for the SemEval 2021 Task 1-Lexical Complexity Prediction (LCP) shared task. In our system, the sentence information comes from the RoBERTa model, and the word frequency information comes from the Tf-Idf algorithm. Use Inception block as a shared layer to learn sentence and word frequency information We described the implementation of our best system and discussed our methods and experiments in the task. The shared task is divided into two sub-tasks. The goal of the two sub-tasks is to predict the complexity of a predetermined word. The shared task is divided into two subtasks. The goal of the two subtasks is to predict the complexity of a predetermined word. The evaluation index of the task is the Pearson correlation coefficient. Our best performance system has Pearson correlation coefficients of 0.7434 and 0.8000 in the single-token subtask test set and the multi-token subtask test set, respectively.

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Manchester Metropolitan at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Convolutional Networks for Complex Word Identification
Robert Flynn | Matthew Shardlow

We present two convolutional neural networks for predicting the complexity of words and phrases in context on a continuous scale. Both models utilize word and character embeddings alongside lexical features as inputs. Our system displays reasonable results with a Pearson correlation of 0.7754 on the task as a whole. We highlight the limitations of this method in properly assessing the context of the target text, and explore the effectiveness of both systems across a range of genres. Both models were submitted as part of LCP 2021, which focuses on the identification of complex words and phrases as a context dependent, regression based task.

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UPB at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Combining Deep Learning and Hand-Crafted Features for Lexical Complexity Prediction
George-Eduard Zaharia | Dumitru-Clementin Cercel | Mihai Dascalu

Reading is a complex process which requires proper understanding of texts in order to create coherent mental representations. However, comprehension problems may arise due to hard-to-understand sections, which can prove troublesome for readers, while accounting for their specific language skills. As such, steps towards simplifying these sections can be performed, by accurately identifying and evaluating difficult structures. In this paper, we describe our approach for the SemEval-2021 Task 1: Lexical Complexity Prediction competition that consists of a mixture of advanced NLP techniques, namely Transformer-based language models, pre-trained word embeddings, Graph Convolutional Networks, Capsule Networks, as well as a series of hand-crafted textual complexity features. Our models are applicable on both subtasks and achieve good performance results, with a MAE below 0.07 and a Person correlation of .73 for single word identification, as well as a MAE below 0.08 and a Person correlation of .79 for multiple word targets. Our results are just 5.46% and 6.5% lower than the top scores obtained in the competition on the first and the second subtasks, respectively.

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UTFPR at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Complexity Prediction by Combining BERT Vectors and Classic Features
Gustavo Henrique Paetzold

We describe the UTFPR systems submitted to the Lexical Complexity Prediction shared task of SemEval 2021. They perform complexity prediction by combining classic features, such as word frequency, n-gram frequency, word length, and number of senses, with BERT vectors. We test numerous feature combinations and machine learning models in our experiments and find that BERT vectors, even if not optimized for the task at hand, are a great complement to classic features. We also find that employing the principle of compositionality can potentially help in phrase complexity prediction. Our systems place 45th out of 55 for single words and 29th out of 38 for phrases.

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RG PA at SemEval-2021 Task 1: A Contextual Attention-based Model with RoBERTa for Lexical Complexity Prediction
Gang Rao | Maochang Li | Xiaolong Hou | Lianxin Jiang | Yang Mo | Jianping Shen

In this paper we propose a contextual attention based model with two-stage fine-tune training using RoBERTa. First, we perform the first-stage fine-tune on corpus with RoBERTa, so that the model can learn some prior domain knowledge. Then we get the contextual embedding of context words based on the token-level embedding with the fine-tuned model. And we use Kfold cross-validation to get K models and ensemble them to get the final result. Finally, we attain the 2nd place in the final evaluation phase of sub-task 2 with pearson correlation of 0.8575.

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CSECU-DSG at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Fusion of Transformer Models for Lexical Complexity Prediction
Abdul Aziz | MD. Akram Hossain | Abu Nowshed Chy

Lexical complexity prediction (LCP) conveys the anticipation of the complexity level of a token or a set of tokens in a sentence. It plays a vital role in the improvement of various NLP tasks including lexical simplification, translations, and text generation. However, multiple meaning of a word in multiple circumstances, grammatical complex structure, and the mutual dependency of words in a sentence make it difficult to estimate the lexical complexity. To address these challenges, SemEval-2021 Task 1 introduced a shared task focusing on LCP and this paper presents our participation in this task. We proposed a transformer-based approach with sentence pair regression. We employed two fine-tuned transformer models. Including BERT and RoBERTa to train our model and fuse their predicted score to the complexity estimation. Experimental results demonstrate that our proposed method achieved competitive performance compared to the participants’ systems.

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CLULEX at SemEval-2021 Task 1: A Simple System Goes a Long Way
Greta Smolenska | Peter Kolb | Sinan Tang | Mironas Bitinis | Héctor Hernández | Elin Asklöv

This paper presents the system we submitted to the first Lexical Complexity Prediction (LCP) Shared Task 2021. The Shared Task provides participants with a new English dataset that includes context of the target word. We participate in the single-word complexity prediction sub-task and focus on feature engineering. Our best system is trained on linguistic features and word embeddings (Pearson’s score of 0.7942). We demonstrate, however, that a simpler feature set achieves comparable results and submit a model trained on 36 linguistic features (Pearson’s score of 0.7925).

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RS_GV at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Sense Relative Lexical Complexity Prediction
Regina Stodden | Gayatri Venugopal

We present the technical report of the system called RS_GV at SemEval-2021 Task 1 on lexical complexity prediction of English words. RS_GV is a neural network using hand-crafted linguistic features in combination with character and word embeddings to predict target words’ complexity. For the generation of the hand-crafted features, we set the target words in relation to their senses. RS_GV predicts the complexity well of biomedical terms but it has problems with the complexity prediction of very complex and very simple target words.

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UNBNLP at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Predicting lexical complexity with masked language models and character-level encoders
Milton King | Ali Hakimi Parizi | Samin Fakharian | Paul Cook

In this paper, we present three supervised systems for English lexical complexity prediction of single and multiword expressions for SemEval-2021 Task 1. We explore the use of statistical baseline features, masked language models, and character-level encoders to predict the complexity of a target token in context. Our best system combines information from these three sources. The results indicate that information from masked language models and character-level encoders can be combined to improve lexical complexity prediction.

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ANDI at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Predicting complexity in context using distributional models, behavioural norms, and lexical resources
Armand Rotaru

In this paper we describe our participation in the Lexical Complexity Prediction (LCP) shared task of SemEval 2021, which involved predicting subjective ratings of complexity for English single words and multi-word expressions, presented in context. Our approach relies on a combination of distributional models, both context-dependent and context-independent, together with behavioural norms and lexical resources.

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JUST-BLUE at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Predicting Lexical Complexity using BERT and RoBERTa Pre-trained Language Models
Tuqa Bani Yaseen | Qusai Ismail | Sarah Al-Omari | Eslam Al-Sobh | Malak Abdullah

Predicting the complexity level of a word or a phrase is considered a challenging task. It is even recognized as a crucial step in numerous NLP applications, such as text rearrangements and text simplification. Early research treated the task as a binary classification task, where the systems anticipated the existence of a word’s complexity (complex versus uncomplicated). Other studies had been designed to assess the level of word complexity using regression models or multi-labeling classification models. Deep learning models show a significant improvement over machine learning models with the rise of transfer learning and pre-trained language models. This paper presents our approach that won the first rank in the SemEval-task1 (sub stask1). We have calculated the degree of word complexity from 0-1 within a text. We have been ranked first place in the competition using the pre-trained language models Bert and RoBERTa, with a Pearson correlation score of 0.788.

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BigGreen at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Lexical Complexity Prediction with Assembly Models
Aadil Islam | Weicheng Ma | Soroush Vosoughi

This paper describes a system submitted by team BigGreen to LCP 2021 for predicting the lexical complexity of English words in a given context. We assemble a feature engineering-based model with a deep neural network model founded on BERT. While BERT itself performs competitively, our feature engineering-based model helps in extreme cases, eg. separating instances of easy and neutral difficulty. Our handcrafted features comprise a breadth of lexical, semantic, syntactic, and novel phonological measures. Visualizations of BERT attention maps offer insight into potential features that Transformers models may learn when fine-tuned for lexical complexity prediction. Our ensembled predictions score reasonably well for the single word subtask, and we demonstrate how they can be harnessed to perform well on the multi word expression subtask too.

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cs60075_team2 at SemEval-2021 Task 1 : Lexical Complexity Prediction using Transformer-based Language Models pre-trained on various text corpora
Abhilash Nandy | Sayantan Adak | Tanurima Halder | Sai Mahesh Pokala

The main contribution of this paper is to fine-tune transformer-based language models pre-trained on several text corpora, some being general (E.g., Wikipedia, BooksCorpus), some being the corpora from which the CompLex Dataset was extracted, and others being from other specific domains such as Finance, Law, etc. We perform ablation studies on selecting the transformer models and how their individual complexity scores are aggregated to get the resulting complexity scores. Our method achieves a best Pearson Correlation of 0.784 in sub-task 1 (single word) and 0.836 in sub-task 2 (multiple word expressions).

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C3SL at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Predicting Lexical Complexity of Words in Specific Contexts with Sentence Embeddings
Raul Almeida | Hegler Tissot | Marcos Didonet Del Fabro

We present our approach to predicting lexical complexity of words in specific contexts, as entered LCP Shared Task 1 at SemEval 2021. The approach consists of separating sentences into smaller chunks, embedding them with Sent2Vec, and reducing the embeddings into a simpler vector used as input to a neural network, the latter for predicting the complexity of words and expressions. Results show that the pre-trained sentence embeddings are not able to capture lexical complexity from the language when applied in cross-domain applications.

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Stanford MLab at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Tree-Based Modelling of Lexical Complexity using Word Embeddings
Erik Rozi | Niveditha Iyer | Gordon Chi | Enok Choe | Kathy J. Lee | Kevin Liu | Patrick Liu | Zander Lack | Jillian Tang | Ethan A. Chi

This paper presents our system for the single- and multi-word lexical complexity prediction tasks of SemEval Task 1: Lexical Complexity Prediction. Text comprehension depends on the reader’s ability to understand the words present in it; evaluating the lexical complexity of such texts can enable readers to find an appropriate text and systems to tailor a text to an audience’s needs. We present our model pipeline, which applies a combination of embedding-based and manual features to predict lexical complexity on the CompLex English dataset using various tree-based and linear models. Our method is ranked 27 / 54 on single-word prediction and 14 / 37 on multi-word prediction.

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archer at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Contextualising Lexical Complexity
Irene Russo

Evaluating the complexity of a target word in a sentential context is the aim of the Lexical Complexity Prediction task at SemEval-2021. This paper presents the system created to assess single words lexical complexity, combining linguistic and psycholinguistic variables in a set of experiments involving random forest and XGboost regressors. Beyond encoding out-of-context information about the lemma, we implemented features based on pre-trained language models to model the target word’s in-context complexity.

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katildakat at SemEval-2021 Task 1: Lexical Complexity Prediction of Single Words and Multi-Word Expressions in English
Katja Voskoboinik

This paper describes systems submitted to Se- mEval 2021 Task 1: Lexical Complexity Prediction (LCP). We compare a linear and a non-linear regression models trained to work for both tracks of the task. We show that both systems are able to generalize better when supplied with information about complexities of single word and multi-word expression (MWE) targets simultaneously. This approach proved to be the most beneficial for multi-word expression targets. We also demonstrate that some hand-crafted features differ in their importance for the target types.

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GX at SemEval-2021 Task 2: BERT with Lemma Information for MCL-WiC Task
Wanying Xie

This paper presents the GX system for the Multilingual and Cross-lingual Word-in-Context Disambiguation (MCL-WiC) task. The purpose of the MCL-WiC task is to tackle the challenge of capturing the polysemous nature of words without relying on a fixed sense inventory in a multilingual and cross-lingual setting. To solve the problems, we use context-specific word embeddings from BERT to eliminate the ambiguity between words in different contexts. For languages without an available training corpus, such as Chinese, we use neuron machine translation model to translate the English data released by the organizers to obtain available pseudo-data. In this paper, we apply our system to the English and Chinese multilingual setting and the experimental results show that our method has certain advantages.

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PALI at SemEval-2021 Task 2: Fine-Tune XLM-RoBERTa for Word in Context Disambiguation
Shuyi Xie | Jian Ma | Haiqin Yang | Lianxin Jiang | Yang Mo | Jianping Shen

This paper presents the PALI team’s winning system for SemEval-2021 Task 2: Multilingual and Cross-lingual Word-in-Context Disambiguation. We fine-tune XLM-RoBERTa model to solve the task of word in context disambiguation, i.e., to determine whether the target word in the two contexts contains the same meaning or not. In implementation, we first specifically design an input tag to emphasize the target word in the contexts. Second, we construct a new vector on the fine-tuned embeddings from XLM-RoBERTa and feed it to a fully-connected network to output the probability of whether the target word in the context has the same meaning or not. The new vector is attained by concatenating the embedding of the [CLS] token and the embeddings of the target word in the contexts. In training, we explore several tricks, such as the Ranger optimizer, data augmentation, and adversarial training, to improve the model prediction. Consequently, we attain the first place in all four cross-lingual tasks.

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hub at SemEval-2021 Task 2: Word Meaning Similarity Prediction Model Based on RoBERTa and Word Frequency
Bo Huang | Yang Bai | Xiaobing Zhou

This paper introduces the system description of the hub team, which explains the related work and experimental results of our team’s participation in SemEval 2021 Task 2: Multilingual and Cross-lingual Word-in-Context Disambiguation (MCL-WiC). The data of this shared task is mainly some cross-language or multi-language sentence pair corpus. The languages covered in the corpus include English, Chinese, French, Russian, and Arabic. The task goal is to judge whether the same words in these sentence pairs have the same meaning in the sentence. This can be seen as a task of binary classification of sentence pairs. What we need to do is to use our method to determine as accurately as possible the meaning of the words in a sentence pair are the same or different. The model used by our team is mainly composed of RoBERTa and Tf-Idf algorithms. The result evaluation index of task submission is the F1 score. We only participated in the English language task. The final score of the test set prediction results submitted by our team was 84.60.

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Lotus at SemEval-2021 Task 2: Combination of BERT and Paraphrasing for English Word Sense Disambiguation
Niloofar Ranjbar | Hossein Zeinali

In this paper, we describe our proposed methods for the multilingual word-in-Context disambiguation task in SemEval-2021. In this task, systems should determine whether a word that occurs in two different sentences is used with the same meaning or not. We proposed several methods using a pre-trained BERT model. In two of them, we paraphrased sentences and add them as input to the BERT, and in one of them, we used WordNet to add some extra lexical information. We evaluated our proposed methods on test data in SemEval- 2021 task 2.

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Cambridge at SemEval-2021 Task 2: Neural WiC-Model with Data Augmentation and Exploration of Representation
Zheng Yuan | David Strohmaier

This paper describes the system of the Cambridge team submitted to the SemEval-2021 shared task on Multilingual and Cross-lingual Word-in-Context Disambiguation. Building on top of a pre-trained masked language model, our system is first pre-trained on out-of-domain data, and then fine-tuned on in-domain data. We demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed two-step training strategy and the benefits of data augmentation from both existing examples and new resources. We further investigate different representations and show that the addition of distance-based features is helpful in the word-in-context disambiguation task. Our system yields highly competitive results in the cross-lingual track without training on any cross-lingual data; and achieves state-of-the-art results in the multilingual track, ranking first in two languages (Arabic and Russian) and second in French out of 171 submitted systems.

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UoB_UK at SemEval 2021 Task 2: Zero-Shot and Few-Shot Learning for Multi-lingual and Cross-lingual Word Sense Disambiguation.
Wei Li | Harish Tayyar Madabushi | Mark Lee

This paper describes our submission to SemEval 2021 Task 2. We compare XLM-RoBERTa Base and Large in the few-shot and zero-shot settings and additionally test the effectiveness of using a k-nearest neighbors classifier in the few-shot setting instead of the more traditional multi-layered perceptron. Our experiments on both the multi-lingual and cross-lingual data show that XLM-RoBERTa Large, unlike the Base version, seems to be able to more effectively transfer learning in a few-shot setting and that the k-nearest neighbors classifier is indeed a more powerful classifier than a multi-layered perceptron when used in few-shot learning.

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PAW at SemEval-2021 Task 2: Multilingual and Cross-lingual Word-in-Context Disambiguation : Exploring Cross Lingual Transfer, Augmentations and Adversarial Training
Harsh Goyal | Aadarsh Singh | Priyanshu Kumar

We experiment with XLM RoBERTa for Word in Context Disambiguation in the Multi Lingual and Cross Lingual setting so as to develop a single model having knowledge about both settings. We solve the problem as a binary classification problem and also experiment with data augmentation and adversarial training techniques. In addition, we also experiment with a 2-stage training technique. Our approaches prove to be beneficial for better performance and robustness.

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LU-BZU at SemEval-2021 Task 2: Word2Vec and Lemma2Vec performance in Arabic Word-in-Context disambiguation
Moustafa Al-Hajj | Mustafa Jarrar

This paper presents a set of experiments to evaluate and compare between the performance of using CBOW Word2Vec and Lemma2Vec models for Arabic Word-in-Context (WiC) disambiguation without using sense inventories or sense embeddings. As part of the SemEval-2021 Shared Task 2 on WiC disambiguation, we used the dev.ar-ar dataset (2k sentence pairs) to decide whether two words in a given sentence pair carry the same meaning. We used two Word2Vec models: Wiki-CBOW, a pre-trained model on Arabic Wikipedia, and another model we trained on large Arabic corpora of about 3 billion tokens. Two Lemma2Vec models was also constructed based on the two Word2Vec models. Each of the four models was then used in the WiC disambiguation task, and then evaluated on the SemEval-2021 test.ar-ar dataset. At the end, we reported the performance of different models and compared between using lemma-based and word-based models.

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GlossReader at SemEval-2021 Task 2: Reading Definitions Improves Contextualized Word Embeddings
Maxim Rachinskiy | Nikolay Arefyev

Consulting a dictionary or a glossary is a familiar way for many humans to figure out what does a word in a particular context mean. We hypothesize that a system that can select a proper definition for a particular word occurrence can also naturally solve tasks related to word senses. To verify this hypothesis we developed a solution for the Multilingual and Cross-lingual Word-in-Context (MCL-WiC) task, that does not use any of the shared task data or other WiC data for training. Instead, it is trained to embed word definitions from English WordNet and word occurrences in English texts into the same vector space following an approach previously proposed for Word Sense Disambiguation (WSD). To estimate the similarity in meaning of two word occurrences, we compared different metrics in this shared vector space and found that L1-distance between normalized contextualized word embeddings outperforms traditionally employed cosine similarity and several other metrics. To solve the task for languages other than English, we rely on zero-shot cross-lingual transfer capabilities of the multilingual XLM-R masked language model. Despite not using MCL-WiC training data, in the shared task our approach achieves an accuracy of 89.5% on the English test set, which is only 4% less than the best system. In the multilingual subtask zero-shot cross-lingual transfer shows competitive results, that are within 2% from the best systems for Russian, French, and Arabic. In the cross-lingual subtask are within 2-4% from the best systems.

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UAlberta at SemEval-2021 Task 2: Determining Sense Synonymy via Translations
Bradley Hauer | Hongchang Bao | Arnob Mallik | Grzegorz Kondrak

We describe the University of Alberta systems for the SemEval-2021 Word-in-Context (WiC) disambiguation task. We explore the use of translation information for deciding whether two different tokens of the same word correspond to the same sense of the word. Our focus is on developing principled theoretical approaches which are grounded in linguistic phenomena, leading to more explainable models. We show that translations from multiple languages can be leveraged to improve the accuracy on the WiC task.

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TransWiC at SemEval-2021 Task 2: Transformer-based Multilingual and Cross-lingual Word-in-Context Disambiguation
Hansi Hettiarachchi | Tharindu Ranasinghe

Identifying whether a word carries the same meaning or different meaning in two contexts is an important research area in natural language processing which plays a significant role in many applications such as question answering, document summarisation, information retrieval and information extraction. Most of the previous work in this area rely on language-specific resources making it difficult to generalise across languages. Considering this limitation, our approach to SemEval-2021 Task 2 is based only on pretrained transformer models and does not use any language-specific processing and resources. Despite that, our best model achieves 0.90 accuracy for English-English subtask which is very compatible compared to the best result of the subtask; 0.93 accuracy. Our approach also achieves satisfactory results in other monolingual and cross-lingual language pairs as well.

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LIORI at SemEval-2021 Task 2: Span Prediction and Binary Classification approaches to Word-in-Context Disambiguation
Adis Davletov | Nikolay Arefyev | Denis Gordeev | Alexey Rey

This paper presents our approaches to SemEval-2021 Task 2: Multilingual and Cross-lingual Word-in-Context Disambiguation task. The first approach attempted to reformulate the task as a question answering problem, while the second one framed it as a binary classification problem. Our best system, which is an ensemble of XLM-R based binary classifiers trained with data augmentation, is among the 3 best-performing systems for Russian, French and Arabic in the multilingual subtask. In the post-evaluation period, we experimented with batch normalization, subword pooling and target word occurrence aggregation methods, resulting in further performance improvements.

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FII_CROSS at SemEval-2021 Task 2: Multilingual and Cross-lingual Word-in-Context Disambiguation
Ciprian Bodnar | Andrada Tapuc | Cosmin Pintilie | Daniela Gifu | Diana Trandabat

This paper presents a word-in-context disambiguation system. The task focuses on capturing the polysemous nature of words in a multilingual and cross-lingual setting, without considering a strict inventory of word meanings. The system applies Natural Language Processing algorithms on datasets from SemEval 2021 Task 2, being able to identify the meaning of words for the languages Arabic, Chinese, English, French and Russian, without making use of any additional mono- or multilingual resources.

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XRJL-HKUST at SemEval-2021 Task 4: WordNet-Enhanced Dual Multi-head Co-Attention for Reading Comprehension of Abstract Meaning
Yuxin Jiang | Ziyi Shou | Qijun Wang | Hao Wu | Fangzhen Lin

This paper presents our submitted system to SemEval 2021 Task 4: Reading Comprehension of Abstract Meaning. Our system uses a large pre-trained language model as the encoder and an additional dual multi-head co-attention layer to strengthen the relationship between passages and question-answer pairs, following the current state-of-the-art model DUMA. The main difference is that we stack the passage-question and question-passage attention modules instead of calculating parallelly to simulate re-considering process. We also add a layer normalization module to improve the performance of our model. Furthermore, to incorporate our known knowledge about abstract concepts, we retrieve the definitions of candidate answers from WordNet and feed them to the model as extra inputs. Our system, called WordNet-enhanced DUal Multi-head Co-Attention (WN-DUMA), achieves 86.67% and 89.99% accuracy on the official blind test set of subtask 1 and subtask 2 respectively.

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UoR at SemEval-2021 Task 4: Using Pre-trained BERT Token Embeddings for Question Answering of Abstract Meaning
Thanet Markchom | Huizhi Liang

Most question answering tasks focuses on predicting concrete answers, e.g., named entities. These tasks can be normally achieved by understanding the contexts without additional information required. In Reading Comprehension of Abstract Meaning (ReCAM) task, the abstract answers are introduced. To understand abstract meanings in the context, additional knowledge is essential. In this paper, we propose an approach that leverages the pre-trained BERT Token embeddings as a prior knowledge resource. According to the results, our approach using the pre-trained BERT outperformed the baselines. It shows that the pre-trained BERT token embeddings can be used as additional knowledge for understanding abstract meanings in question answering.

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Noobs at Semeval-2021 Task 4: Masked Language Modeling for abstract answer prediction
Shikhar Shukla | Sarthak Sarthak | Karm Veer Arya

This paper presents the system developed by our team for Semeval 2021 Task 4: Reading Comprehension of Abstract Meaning. The aim of the task was to benchmark the NLP techniques in understanding the abstract concepts present in a passage, and then predict the missing word in a human written summary of the passage. We trained a Roberta-Large model trained with a masked language modeling objective. In cases where this model failed to predict one of the available options, another Roberta-Large model trained as a binary classifier was used to predict correct and incorrect options. We used passage summary generated by Pegasus model and question as inputs. Our best solution was an ensemble of these 2 systems. We achieved an accuracy of 86.22% on subtask 1 and 87.10% on subtask 2.

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ZJUKLAB at SemEval-2021 Task 4: Negative Augmentation with Language Model for Reading Comprehension of Abstract Meaning
Xin Xie | Xiangnan Chen | Xiang Chen | Yong Wang | Ningyu Zhang | Shumin Deng | Huajun Chen

This paper presents our systems for the three Subtasks of SemEval Task4: Reading Comprehension of Abstract Meaning (ReCAM). We explain the algorithms used to learn our models and the process of tuning the algorithms and selecting the best model. Inspired by the similarity of the ReCAM task and the language pre-training, we propose a simple yet effective technology, namely, negative augmentation with language model. Evaluation results demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed approach. Our models achieve the 4th rank on both official test sets of Subtask 1 and Subtask 2 with an accuracy of 87.9% and an accuracy of 92.8%, respectively. We further conduct comprehensive model analysis and observe interesting error cases, which may promote future researches. The code and dataset used in our paper can be found at https://github.com/CheaSim/SemEval2021. The leaderboard can be found at https://competitions.codalab.org/competitions/26153.

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PINGAN Omini-Sinitic at SemEval-2021 Task 4:Reading Comprehension of Abstract Meaning
Ye Wang | Yanmeng Wang | Haijun Zhu | Bo Zeng | Zhenghong Hao | Shaojun Wang | Jing Xiao

This paper describes the winning system for subtask 2 and the second-placed system for subtask 1 in SemEval 2021 Task 4: ReadingComprehension of Abstract Meaning. We propose to use pre-trianed Electra discriminator to choose the best abstract word from five candidates. An upper attention and auto denoising mechanism is introduced to process the long sequences. The experiment results demonstrate that this contribution greatly facilitatesthe contextual language modeling in reading comprehension task. The ablation study is also conducted to show the validity of our proposed methods.

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NEUer at SemEval-2021 Task 4: Complete Summary Representation by Filling Answers into Question for Matching Reading Comprehension
Zhixiang Chen | Yikun Lei | Pai Liu | Guibing Guo

SemEval task 4 aims to find a proper option from multiple candidates to resolve the task of machine reading comprehension. Most existing approaches propose to concat question and option together to form a context-aware model. However, we argue that straightforward concatenation can only provide a coarse-grained context for the MRC task, ignoring the specific positions of the option relative to the question. In this paper, we propose a novel MRC model by filling options into the question to produce a fine-grained context (defined as summary) which can better reveal the relationship between option and question. We conduct a series of experiments on the given dataset, and the results show that our approach outperforms other counterparts to a large extent.

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WLV-RIT at SemEval-2021 Task 5: A Neural Transformer Framework for Detecting Toxic Spans
Tharindu Ranasinghe | Diptanu Sarkar | Marcos Zampieri | Alexander Ororbia

In recent years, the widespread use of social media has led to an increase in the generation of toxic and offensive content on online platforms. In response, social media platforms have worked on developing automatic detection methods and employing human moderators to cope with this deluge of offensive content. While various state-of-the-art statistical models have been applied to detect toxic posts, there are only a few studies that focus on detecting the words or expressions that make a post offensive. This motivates the organization of the SemEval-2021 Task 5: Toxic Spans Detection competition, which has provided participants with a dataset containing toxic spans annotation in English posts. In this paper, we present the WLV-RIT entry for the SemEval-2021 Task 5. Our best performing neural transformer model achieves an 0.68 F1-Score. Furthermore, we develop an open-source framework for multilingual detection of offensive spans, i.e., MUDES, based on neural transformers that detect toxic spans in texts.

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YNU-HPCC at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Using a Transformer-based Model with Auxiliary Information for Toxic Span Detection
Ruijun Chen | Jin Wang | Xuejie Zhang

Toxic span detection requires the detection of spans that make a text toxic instead of simply classifying the text. In this paper, a transformer-based model with auxiliary information is proposed for SemEval-2021 Task 5. The proposed model was implemented based on the BERT-CRF architecture. It consists of three parts: a transformer-based model that can obtain the token representation, an auxiliary information module that combines features from different layers, and an output layer used for the classification. Various BERT-based models, such as BERT, ALBERT, RoBERTa, and XLNET, were used to learn contextual representations. The predictions of these models were assembled to improve the sequence labeling tasks by using a voting strategy. Experimental results showed that the introduced auxiliary information can improve the performance of toxic spans detection. The proposed model ranked 5th of 91 in the competition. The code of this study is available at https://github.com/Chenrj233/semeval2021_task5

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UIT-ISE-NLP at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Toxic Spans Detection with BiLSTM-CRF and ToxicBERT Comment Classification
Son T. Luu | Ngan Nguyen

We present our works on SemEval-2021 Task 5 about Toxic Spans Detection. This task aims to build a model for identifying toxic words in whole posts. We use the BiLSTM-CRF model combining with ToxicBERT Classification to train the detection model for identifying toxic words in posts. Our model achieves 62.23% by F1-score on the Toxic Spans Detection task.

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GHOST at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Is explanation all you need?
Kamil Pluciński | Hanna Klimczak

This paper discusses different approaches to the Toxic Spans Detection task. The problem posed by the task was to determine which words contribute mostly to recognising a document as toxic. As opposed to binary classification of entire texts, word-level assessment could be of great use during comment moderation, also allowing for a more in-depth comprehension of the model’s predictions. As the main goal was to ensure transparency and understanding, this paper focuses on the current state-of-the-art approaches based on the explainable AI concepts and compares them to a supervised learning solution with word-level labels. The work consists of two xAI approaches that automatically provide the explanation for models trained for binary classification of toxic documents: an LSTM model with attention as a model-specific approach and the Shapley values for interpreting BERT predictions as a model-agnostic method. The competing approach considers this problem as supervised token classification, where models like BERT and its modifications were tested. The paper aims to explore, compare and assess the quality of predictions for different methods on the task. The advantages of each approach and further research direction are also discussed.

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GoldenWind at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Orthrus - An Ensemble Approach to Identify Toxicity
Marco Palomino | Dawid Grad | James Bedwell

Many new developments to detect and mitigate toxicity are currently being evaluated. We are particularly interested in the correlation between toxicity and the emotions expressed in online posts. While toxicity may be disguised by amending the wording of posts, emotions will not. Therefore, we describe here an ensemble method to identify toxicity and classify the emotions expressed on a corpus of annotated posts published by Task 5 of SemEval 2021–our analysis shows that the majority of such posts express anger, sadness and fear. Our method to identify toxicity combines a lexicon-based approach, which on its own achieves an F1 score of 61.07%, with a supervised learning approach, which on its own achieves an F1 score of 60%. When both methods are combined, the ensemble achieves an F1 score of 66.37%.

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LISAC FSDM USMBA at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Tackling Toxic Spans Detection Challenge with Supervised SpanBERT-based Model and Unsupervised LIME-based Model
Abdessamad Benlahbib | Ahmed Alami | Hamza Alami

Toxic spans detection is an emerging challenge that aims to find toxic spans within a toxic text. In this paper, we describe our solutions to tackle toxic spans detection. The first solution, which follows a supervised approach, is based on SpanBERT model. This latter is intended to better embed and predict spans of text. The second solution, which adopts an unsupervised approach, combines linear support vector machine with the Local Interpretable Model-Agnostic Explanations (LIME). This last is used to interpret predictions of learning-based models. Our supervised model outperformed the unsupervised model and achieved the f-score of 67,84% (ranked 22/85) in Task 5 at SemEval-2021: Toxic Spans Detection.

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HITMI&T at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Integrating Transformer and CRF for Toxic Spans Detection
Chenyi Wang | Tianshu Liu | Tiejun Zhao

This paper introduces our system at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Toxic Spans Detection. The task aims to accurately locate toxic spans within a text. Using BIO tagging scheme, we model the task as a token-level sequence labeling task. Our system uses a single model built on the model of multi-layer bidirectional transformer encoder. And we introduce conditional random field (CRF) to make the model learn the constraints between tags. We use ERNIE as pre-trained model, which is more suitable for the task accroding to our experiments. In addition, we use adversarial training with the fast gradient method (FGM) to improve the robustness of the system. Our system obtains 69.85% F1 score, ranking 3rd for the official evaluation.

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AStarTwice at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Toxic Span Detection Using RoBERTa-CRF, Domain Specific Pre-Training and Self-Training
Thakur Ashutosh Suman | Abhinav Jain

This paper describes our contribution to SemEval-2021 Task 5: Toxic Spans Detection. Our solution is built upon RoBERTa language model and Conditional Random Fields (CRF). We pre-trained RoBERTa on Civil Comments dataset, enabling it to create better contextual representation for this task. We also employed the semi-supervised learning technique of self-training, which allowed us to extend our training dataset. In addition to these, we also identified some pre-processing steps that significantly improved our F1 score. Our proposed system achieved a rank of 41 with an F1 score of 66.16%.

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NLP_UIOWA at Semeval-2021 Task 5: Transferring Toxic Sets to Tag Toxic Spans
Jonathan Rusert

We leverage a BLSTM with attention to identify toxic spans in texts. We explore different dimensions which affect the model’s performance. The first dimension explored is the toxic set the model is trained on. Besides the provided dataset, we explore the transferability of 5 different toxic related sets, including offensive, toxic, abusive, and hate sets. We find that the solely offensive set shows the highest promise of transferability. The second dimension we explore is methodology, including leveraging attention, employing a greedy remove method, using a frequency ratio, and examining hybrid combinations of multiple methods. We conduct an error analysis to examine which types of toxic spans were missed and which were wrongly inferred as toxic along with the main reasons why they occurred. Finally, we extend our method via ensembles, which achieves our highest F1 score of 55.1.

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S-NLP at SemEval-2021 Task 5: An Analysis of Dual Networks for Sequence Tagging
Viet Anh Nguyen | Tam Minh Nguyen | Huy Quang Dao | Quang Huu Pham

The SemEval 2021 task 5: Toxic Spans Detection is a task of identifying considered-toxic spans in text, which provides a valuable, automatic tool for moderating online contents. This paper represents the second-place method for the task, an ensemble of two approaches. While one approach relies on combining different embedding methods to extract diverse semantic and syntactic representations of words in context; the other utilizes extra data with a slightly customized Self-training, a semi-supervised learning technique, for sequence tagging problems. Both of our architectures take advantage of a strong language model, which was fine-tuned on a toxic classification task. Although experimental evidence indicates higher effectiveness of the first approach than the second one, combining them leads to our best results of 70.77 F1-score on the test dataset.

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UAntwerp at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Spans are Spans, stacking a binary word level approach to toxic span detection
Ben Burtenshaw | Mike Kestemont

This paper describes the system developed by the Antwerp Centre for Digital humanities and literary Criticism [UAntwerp] for toxic span detection. We used a stacked generalisation ensemble of five component models, with two distinct interpretations of the task. Two models attempted to predict binary word toxicity based on ngram sequences, whilst 3 categorical span based models were trained to predict toxic token labels based on complete sequence tokens. The five models’ predictions were ensembled within an LSTM model. As well as describing the system, we perform error analysis to explore model performance in relation to textual features. The system described in this paper scored 0.6755 and ranked 26th.

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hub at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Toxic Span Detection Based on Word-Level Classification
Bo Huang | Yang Bai | Xiaobing Zhou

This article introduces the system description of the hub team, which explains the related work and experimental results of our team’s participation in SemEval 2021 Task 5: Toxic Spans Detection. The data for this shared task comes from some posts on the Internet. The task goal is to identify the toxic content contained in these text data. We need to find the span of the toxic text in the text data as accurately as possible. In the same post, the toxic text may be one paragraph or multiple paragraphs. Our team uses a classification scheme based on word-level to accomplish this task. The system we used to submit the results is ALBERT+BILSTM+CRF. The result evaluation index of the task submission is the F1 score, and the final score of the prediction result of the test set submitted by our team is 0.6640226029.

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Sefamerve ARGE at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Toxic Spans Detection Using Segmentation Based 1-D Convolutional Neural Network Model
Selman Delil | Birol Kuyumcu | Cüneyt Aksakallı

This paper describes our contribution to SemEval-2021 Task 5: Toxic Spans Detection. Our approach considers toxic spans detection as a segmentation problem. The system, Waw-unet, consists of a 1-D convolutional neural network adopted from U-Net architecture commonly applied for semantic segmentation. We customize existing architecture by adding a special network block considering for text segmentation, as an essential component of the model. We compared the model with two transformers-based systems RoBERTa and XLM-RoBERTa to see its performance against pre-trained language models. We obtained 0.6251 f1 score with Waw-unet while 0.6390 and 0.6601 with the compared models respectively.

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MIPT-NSU-UTMN at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Ensembling Learning with Pre-trained Language Models for Toxic Spans Detection
Mikhail Kotyushev | Anna Glazkova | Dmitry Morozov

This paper describes our system for SemEval-2021 Task 5 on Toxic Spans Detection. We developed ensemble models using BERT-based neural architectures and post-processing to combine tokens into spans. We evaluated several pre-trained language models using various ensemble techniques for toxic span identification and achieved sizable improvements over our baseline fine-tuned BERT models. Finally, our system obtained a F1-score of 67.55% on test data.

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UIT-E10dot3 at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Toxic Spans Detection with Named Entity Recognition and Question-Answering Approaches
Phu Gia Hoang | Luan Thanh Nguyen | Kiet Nguyen

The increment of toxic comments on online space is causing tremendous effects on other vulnerable users. For this reason, considerable efforts are made to deal with this, and SemEval-2021 Task 5: Toxic Spans Detection is one of those. This task asks competitors to extract spans that have toxicity from the given texts, and we have done several analyses to understand its structure before doing experiments. We solve this task by two approaches, Named Entity Recognition with spaCy’s library and Question-Answering with RoBERTa combining with ToxicBERT, and the former gains the highest F1-score of 66.99%.

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SkoltechNLP at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Leveraging Sentence-level Pre-training for Toxic Span Detection
David Dale | Igor Markov | Varvara Logacheva | Olga Kozlova | Nikita Semenov | Alexander Panchenko

This work describes the participation of the Skoltech NLP group team (Sk) in the Toxic Spans Detection task at SemEval-2021. The goal of the task is to identify the most toxic fragments of a given sentence, which is a binary sequence tagging problem. We show that fine-tuning a RoBERTa model for this problem is a strong baseline. This baseline can be further improved by pre-training the RoBERTa model on a large dataset labeled for toxicity at the sentence level. While our solution scored among the top 20% participating models, it is only 2 points below the best result. This suggests the viability of our approach.

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Entity at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Weakly Supervised Token Labelling for Toxic Spans Detection
Vaibhav Jain | Mina Naghshnejad

Detection of toxic spans - detecting toxicity of contents in the granularity of tokens - is crucial for effective moderation of online discussions. The baseline approach for this problem using the transformer model is to add a token classification head to the language model and fine-tune the layers with the token labeled dataset. One of the limitations of such a baseline approach is the scarcity of labeled data. To improve the results, We studied leveraging existing public datasets for a related but different task of entire comment/sentence classification. We propose two approaches: the first approach fine-tunes transformer models that are pre-trained on sentence classification samples. In the second approach, we perform weak supervision with soft attention to learn token level labels from sentence labels. Our experiments show improvements in the F1 score over the baseline approach. The implementation has been released publicly.

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BennettNLP at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Toxic Spans Detection using Stacked Embedding Powered Toxic Entity Recognizer
Harsh Kataria | Ambuje Gupta | Vipul Mishra

With the rapid growth in technology, social media activity has seen a boom across all age groups. It is humanly impossible to check all the tweets, comments and status manually whether they follow proper community guidelines. A lot of toxicity is regularly posted on these social media platforms. This research aims to find toxic words in a sentence so that a healthy social community is built across the globe and the users receive censored content with specific warnings and facts. To solve this challenging problem, authors have combined concepts of Linked List for pre-processing and then used the idea of stacked embeddings like BERT Embeddings, Flair Embeddings and Word2Vec on the flairNLP framework to get the desired results. F1 metric was used to evaluate the model. The authors were able to produce a 0.74 F1 score on their test set.

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UoT-UWF-PartAI at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Self Attention Based Bi-GRU with Multi-Embedding Representation for Toxicity Highlighter
Hamed Babaei Giglou | Taher Rahgooy | Mostafa Rahgouy | Jafar Razmara

Toxic Spans Detection(TSD) task is defined as highlighting spans that make a text toxic. Many works have been done to classify a given comment or document as toxic or non-toxic. However, none of those proposed models work at the token level. In this paper, we propose a self-attention-based bidirectional gated recurrent unit(BiGRU) with a multi-embedding representation of the tokens. Our proposed model enriches the representation by a combination of GPT-2, GloVe, and RoBERTa embeddings, which led to promising results. Experimental results show that our proposed approach is very effective in detecting span tokens.

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YoungSheldon at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Fine-tuning Pre-trained Language Models for Toxic Spans Detection using Token classification Objective
Mayukh Sharma | Ilanthenral Kandasamy | W.b. Vasantha

In this paper, we describe our system used for SemEval 2021 Task 5: Toxic Spans Detection. Our proposed system approaches the problem as a token classification task. We trained our model to find toxic words and concatenate their spans to predict the toxic spans within a sentence. We fine-tuned Pre-trained Language Models (PLMs) for identifying the toxic words. For fine-tuning, we stacked the classification layer on top of the PLM features of each word to classify if it is toxic or not. PLMs are pre-trained using different objectives and their performance may differ on downstream tasks. We, therefore, compare the performance of BERT, ELECTRA, RoBERTa, XLM-RoBERTa, T5, XLNet, and MPNet for identifying toxic spans within a sentence. Our best performing system used RoBERTa. It performed well, achieving an F1 score of 0.6841 and secured a rank of 16 on the official leaderboard.

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HLE-UPC at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Multi-Depth DistilBERT for Toxic Spans Detection
Rafel Palliser-Sans | Albert Rial-Farràs

This paper presents our submission to SemEval-2021 Task 5: Toxic Spans Detection. The purpose of this task is to detect the spans that make a text toxic, which is a complex labour for several reasons. Firstly, because of the intrinsic subjectivity of toxicity, and secondly, due to toxicity not always coming from single words like insults or offends, but sometimes from whole expressions formed by words that may not be toxic individually. Following this idea of focusing on both single words and multi-word expressions, we study the impact of using a multi-depth DistilBERT model, which uses embeddings from different layers to estimate the final per-token toxicity. Our quantitative results show that using information from multiple depths boosts the performance of the model. Finally, we also analyze our best model qualitatively.

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Lone Pine at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Fine-Grained Detection of Hate Speech Using BERToxic
Yakoob Khan | Weicheng Ma | Soroush Vosoughi

This paper describes our approach to the Toxic Spans Detection problem (SemEval-2021 Task 5). We propose BERToxic, a system that fine-tunes a pre-trained BERT model to locate toxic text spans in a given text and utilizes additional post-processing steps to refine the boundaries. The post-processing steps involve (1) labeling character offsets between consecutive toxic tokens as toxic and (2) assigning a toxic label to words that have at least one token labeled as toxic. Through experiments, we show that these two post-processing steps improve the performance of our model by 4.16% on the test set. We also studied the effects of data augmentation and ensemble modeling strategies on our system. Our system significantly outperformed the provided baseline and achieved an F1-score of 0.683, placing Lone Pine in the 17th place out of 91 teams in the competition. Our code is made available at https://github.com/Yakoob-Khan/Toxic-Spans-Detection

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SRPOL DIALOGUE SYSTEMS at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Automatic Generation of Training Data for Toxic Spans Detection
Michał Satława | Katarzyna Zamłyńska | Jarosław Piersa | Joanna Kolis | Klaudia Firląg | Katarzyna Beksa | Zuzanna Bordzicka | Christian Goltz | Paweł Bujnowski | Piotr Andruszkiewicz

This paper presents a system used for SemEval-2021 Task 5: Toxic Spans Detection. Our system is an ensemble of BERT-based models for binary word classification, trained on a dataset extended by toxic comments modified and generated by two language models. For the toxic word classification, the prediction threshold value was optimized separately for every comment, in order to maximize the expected F1 value.

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SINAI at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Combining Embeddings in a BiLSTM-CRF model for Toxic Spans Detection
Flor Miriam Plaza-del-Arco | Pilar López-Úbeda | L. Alfonso Ureña-López | M. Teresa Martín-Valdivia

This paper describes the participation of SINAI team at Task 5: Toxic Spans Detection which consists of identifying spans that make a text toxic. Although several resources and systems have been developed so far in the context of offensive language, both annotation and tasks have mainly focused on classifying whether a text is offensive or not. However, detecting toxic spans is crucial to identify why a text is toxic and can assist human moderators to locate this type of content on social media. In order to accomplish the task, we follow a deep learning-based approach using a Bidirectional variant of a Long Short Term Memory network along with a stacked Conditional Random Field decoding layer (BiLSTM-CRF). Specifically, we test the performance of the combination of different pre-trained word embeddings for recognizing toxic entities in text. The results show that the combination of word embeddings helps in detecting offensive content. Our team ranks 29th out of 91 participants.

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CSECU-DSG at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Leveraging Ensemble of Sequence Tagging Models for Toxic Spans Detection
Tashin Hossain | Jannatun Naim | Fareen Tasneem | Radiathun Tasnia | Abu Nowshed Chy

The upsurge of prolific blogging and microblogging platforms enabled the abusers to spread negativity and threats greater than ever. Detecting the toxic portions substantially aids to moderate or exclude the abusive parts for maintaining sound online platforms. This paper describes our participation in the SemEval 2021 toxic span detection task. The task requires detecting spans that convey toxic remarks from the given text. We explore an ensemble of sequence labeling models including the BiLSTM-CRF, spaCy NER model with custom toxic tags, and fine-tuned BERT model to identify the toxic spans. Finally, a majority voting ensemble method is used to determine the unified toxic spans. Experimental results depict the competitive performance of our model among the participants.

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UTNLP at SemEval-2021 Task 5: A Comparative Analysis of Toxic Span Detection using Attention-based, Named Entity Recognition, and Ensemble Models
Alireza Salemi | Nazanin Sabri | Emad Kebriaei | Behnam Bahrak | Azadeh Shakery

Detecting which parts of a sentence contribute to that sentence’s toxicity—rather than providing a sentence-level verdict of hatefulness— would increase the interpretability of models and allow human moderators to better understand the outputs of the system. This paper presents our team’s, UTNLP, methodology and results in the SemEval-2021 shared task 5 on toxic spans detection. We test multiple models and contextual embeddings and report the best setting out of all. The experiments start with keyword-based models and are followed by attention-based, named entity- based, transformers-based, and ensemble models. Our best approach, an ensemble model, achieves an F1 of 0.684 in the competition’s evaluation phase.

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macech at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Toxic Spans Detection
Maggie Cech

Toxic language is often present in online forums, especially when politics and other polarizing topics arise, and can lead to people becoming discouraged from joining or continuing conversations. In this paper, we use data consisting of comments with the indices of toxic text labelled to train an RNN to deter-mine which parts of the comments make them toxic, which could aid online moderators. We compare results using both the original dataset and an augmented set, as well as GRU versus LSTM RNN models.

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LZ1904 at SemEval-2021 Task 5: Bi-LSTM-CRF for Toxic Span Detection using Pretrained Word Embedding
Liang Zou | Wen Li

Recurrent Neural Networks (RNN) have been widely used in various Natural Language Processing (NLP) tasks such as text classification, sequence tagging, and machine translation. Long Short Term Memory (LSTM), a special unit of RNN, has the benefit of memorizing past and even future information in a sentence (especially for bidirectional LSTM). In the shared task of detecting spans which make texts toxic, we first apply pretrained word embedding (GloVe) to generate the word vectors after tokenization. And then we construct Bidirectional Long Short Term Memory-Conditional Random Field (Bi-LSTM-CRF) model by Baidu research to predict whether each word in the sentence is toxic or not. We tune hyperparameters of dropout rate, number of LSTM units, embedding size with 10 epochs and choose the best epoch with validation recall. Our model achieves an F1 score of 66.99 percent in test dataset.

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LIIR at SemEval-2021 task 6: Detection of Persuasion Techniques In Texts and Images using CLIP features
Erfan Ghadery | Damien Sileo | Marie-Francine Moens

We describe our approach for SemEval-2021 task 6 on detection of persuasion techniques in multimodal content (memes). Our system combines pretrained multimodal models (CLIP) and chained classifiers. Also, we propose to enrich the data by a data augmentation technique. Our submission achieves a rank of 8/16 in terms of F1-micro and 9/16 with F1-macro on the test set.

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AIMH at SemEval-2021 Task 6: Multimodal Classification Using an Ensemble of Transformer Models
Nicola Messina | Fabrizio Falchi | Claudio Gennaro | Giuseppe Amato

This paper describes the system used by the AIMH Team to approach the SemEval Task 6. We propose an approach that relies on an architecture based on the transformer model to process multimodal content (text and images) in memes. Our architecture, called DVTT (Double Visual Textual Transformer), approaches Subtasks 1 and 3 of Task 6 as multi-label classification problems, where the text and/or images of the meme are processed, and the probabilities of the presence of each possible persuasion technique are returned as a result. DVTT uses two complete networks of transformers that work on text and images that are mutually conditioned. One of the two modalities acts as the main one and the second one intervenes to enrich the first one, thus obtaining two distinct ways of operation. The two transformers outputs are merged by averaging the inferred probabilities for each possible label, and the overall network is trained end-to-end with a binary cross-entropy loss.

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HOMADOS at SemEval-2021 Task 6: Multi-Task Learning for Propaganda Detection
Konrad Kaczyński | Piotr Przybyła

Among the tasks motivated by the proliferation of misinformation, propaganda detection is particularly challenging due to the deficit of fine-grained manual annotations required to train machine learning models. Here we show how data from other related tasks, including credibility assessment, can be leveraged in multi-task learning (MTL) framework to accelerate the training process. To that end, we design a BERT-based model with multiple output layers, train it in several MTL scenarios and perform evaluation against the SemEval gold standard.

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1213Li at SemEval-2021 Task 6: Detection of Propaganda with Multi-modal Attention and Pre-trained Models
Peiguang Li | Xuan Li | Xian Sun

This paper presents the solution proposed by the 1213Li team for subtask 3 in SemEval-2021 Task 6: identifying the multiple persuasion techniques used in the multi-modal content of the meme. We explored various approaches in feature extraction and the detection of persuasion labels. Our final model employs pre-trained models including RoBERTa and ResNet-50 as a feature extractor for texts and images, respectively, and adopts a label embedding layer with multi-modal attention mechanism to measure the similarity of labels with the multi-modal information and fuse features for label prediction. Our proposed method outperforms the provided baseline method and achieves 3rd out of 16 participants with 0.54860/0.22830 for Micro/Macro F1 scores.

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NLyticsFKIE at SemEval-2021 Task 6: Detection of Persuasion Techniques In Texts And Images
Albert Pritzkau

The following system description presents our approach to the detection of persuasion techniques in texts and images. The given task has been framed as a multi-label classification problem with the different techniques serving as class labels. The multi-label classification problem is one in which a list of target variables such as our class labels is associated with every input chunk and assumes that a document can simultaneously and independently be assigned to multiple labels or classes. In order to assign class labels to the given memes, we opted for RoBERTa (A Robustly Optimized BERT Pretraining Approach) as a neural network architecture for token and sequence classification. Starting off with a pre-trained model for language representation we fine-tuned this model on the given classification task with the provided annotated data in supervised training steps. To incorporate image features in the multi-modal setting, we rely on the pre-trained VGG-16 model architecture.

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YNU-HPCC at SemEval-2021 Task 6: Combining ALBERT and Text-CNN for Persuasion Detection in Texts and Images
Xingyu Zhu | Jin Wang | Xuejie Zhang

In recent years, memes combining image and text have been widely used in social media, and memes are one of the most popular types of content used in online disinformation campaigns. In this paper, our study on the detection of persuasion techniques in texts and images in SemEval-2021 Task 6 is summarized. For propaganda technology detection in text, we propose a combination model of both ALBERT and Text CNN for text classification, as well as a BERT-based multi-task sequence labeling model for propaganda technology coverage span detection. For the meme classification task involved in text understanding and visual feature extraction, we designed a parallel channel model divided into text and image channels. Our method achieved a good performance on subtasks 1 and 3. The micro F1-scores of 0.492, 0.091, and 0.446 achieved on the test sets of the three subtasks ranked 12th, 7th, and 11th, respectively, and all are higher than the baseline model.

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LT3 at SemEval-2021 Task 6: Using Multi-Modal Compact Bilinear Pooling to Combine Visual and Textual Understanding in Memes
Pranaydeep Singh | Els Lefever

Internet memes have become ubiquitous in social media networks today. Due to their popularity, they are also a widely used mode of expression to spread disinformation online. As memes consist of a mixture of text and image, they require a multi-modal approach for automatic analysis. In this paper, we describe our contribution to the SemEval-2021 Detection of Persuasian Techniques in Texts and Images Task. We propose a Multi-Modal learning system, which incorporates “memebeddings”, viz. joint text and vision features by combining them with compact bilinear pooling, to automatically identify rhetorical and psychological disinformation techniques. The experimental results show that the proposed system constantly outperforms the competition’s baseline, and achieves the 2nd best Macro F1-score and 14th best Micro F1-score out of all participants.

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FPAI at SemEval-2021 Task 6: BERT-MRC for Propaganda Techniques Detection
Xiaolong Hou | Junsong Ren | Gang Rao | Lianxin Lian | Zhihao Ruan | Yang Mo | JIanping Shen

The objective of subtask 2 of SemEval-2021 Task 6 is to identify techniques used together with the span(s) of text covered by each technique. This paper describes the system and model we developed for the task. We first propose a pipeline system to identify spans, then to classify the technique in the input sequence. But it severely suffers from handling the overlapping in nested span. Then we propose to formulize the task as a question answering task by MRC framework which achieves a better result compared to the pipeline method. Moreover, data augmentation and loss design techniques are also explored to alleviate the problem of data sparse and imbalance. Finally, we attain the 3rd place in the final evaluation phase.

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NLPIITR at SemEval-2021 Task 6: RoBERTa Model with Data Augmentation for Persuasion Techniques Detection
Vansh Gupta | Raksha Sharma

This paper describes and examines different systems to address Task 6 of SemEval-2021: Detection of Persuasion Techniques In Texts And Images, Subtask 1. The task aims to build a model for identifying rhetorical and psycho- logical techniques (such as causal oversimplification, name-calling, smear) in the textual content of a meme which is often used in a disinformation campaign to influence the users. The paper provides an extensive comparison among various machine learning systems as a solution to the task. We elaborate on the pre-processing of the text data in favor of the task and present ways to overcome the class imbalance. The results show that fine-tuning a RoBERTa model gave the best results with an F1-Micro score of 0.51 on the development set.

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LeCun at SemEval-2021 Task 6: Detecting Persuasion Techniques in Text Using Ensembled Pretrained Transformers and Data Augmentation
Dia Abujaber | Ahmed Qarqaz | Malak A. Abdullah

We developed a system for task 6 sub-task 1 for detecting propaganda in memes. An external dataset and augmentation data-set were used to extend the official competition data-set. Data augmentation techniques were applied on the external data-set and competition data-set to come up with the augmented data-set. We trained 5 transformers (DeBERTa, and 4 RoBERTa) and ensembled them to make the prediction. We trained 1 RoBERTa model initially on the augmented data-set for a few epochs and then fine-tuned it on the competition data-set which improved the f1-micro up to 0.1 scores. After that, another initial RoBERTa model was trained on the external data-set merged with the augmented data-set for few epochs and fine-tuned it on the competition data-set. Furthermore, we ensembled the initial models with the models after fine-tuning. For the final model in the ensemble, we trained a DeBERTa model on the augmented data-set without fine-tuning it on the competition data-set. Finally, we averaged the output of each model in the ensemble to make the prediction.

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Volta at SemEval-2021 Task 6: Towards Detecting Persuasive Texts and Images using Textual and Multimodal Ensemble
Kshitij Gupta | Devansh Gautam | Radhika Mamidi

Memes are one of the most popular types of content used to spread information online. They can influence a large number of people through rhetorical and psychological techniques. The task, Detection of Persuasion Techniques in Texts and Images, is to detect these persuasive techniques in memes. It consists of three subtasks: (A) Multi-label classification using textual content, (B) Multi-label classification and span identification using textual content, and (C) Multi-label classification using visual and textual content. In this paper, we propose a transfer learning approach to fine-tune BERT-based models in different modalities. We also explore the effectiveness of ensembles of models trained in different modalities. We achieve an F1-score of 57.0, 48.2, and 52.1 in the corresponding subtasks.

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MinD at SemEval-2021 Task 6: Propaganda Detection using Transfer Learning and Multimodal Fusion
Junfeng Tian | Min Gui | Chenliang Li | Ming Yan | Wenming Xiao

We describe our systems of subtask1 and subtask3 for SemEval-2021 Task 6 on Detection of Persuasion Techniques in Texts and Images. The purpose of subtask1 is to identify propaganda techniques given textual content, and the goal of subtask3 is to detect them given both textual and visual content. For subtask1, we investigate transfer learning based on pre-trained language models (PLMs) such as BERT, RoBERTa to solve data sparsity problems. For subtask3, we extract heterogeneous visual representations (i.e., face features, OCR features, and multimodal representations) and explore various multimodal fusion strategies to combine the textual and visual representations. The official evaluation shows our ensemble model ranks 1st for subtask1 and 2nd for subtask3.

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CSECU-DSG at SemEval-2021 Task 6: Orchestrating Multimodal Neural Architectures for Identifying Persuasion Techniques in Texts and Images
Tashin Hossain | Jannatun Naim | Fareen Tasneem | Radiathun Tasnia | Abu Nowshed Chy

Inscribing persuasion techniques in memes is the most impactful way to influence peoples’ mindsets. People are more inclined to memes as they are more stimulating and convincing and hence memes are often exploited by tactfully engraving propaganda in its context with the intent of attaining specific agenda. This paper describes our participation in the three subtasks featured by SemEval 2021 task 6 on the detection of persuasion techniques in texts and images. We utilize a fusion of logistic regression, decision tree, and fine-tuned DistilBERT for tackling subtask 1. As for subtask 2, we propose a system that consolidates a span identification model and a multi-label classification model based on pre-trained BERT. We address the multi-modal multi-label classification of memes defined in subtask 3 by utilizing a ResNet50 based image model, DistilBERT based text model, and a multi-modal architecture based on multikernel CNN+LSTM and MLP model. The outcomes illustrated the competitive performance of our systems.

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UMUTeam at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense with Linguistic Features and Word Embeddings
José Antonio García-Díaz | Rafael Valencia-García

In writing, humor is mainly based on figurative language in which words and expressions change their conventional meaning to refer to something without saying it directly. This flip in the meaning of the words prevents Natural Language Processing from revealing the real intention of a communication and, therefore, reduces the effectiveness of tasks such as Sentiment Analysis or Emotion Detection. In this manuscript we describe the participation of the UMUTeam in HaHackathon 2021, whose objective is to detect and rate humorous and controversial content. Our proposal is based on the combination of linguistic features with contextual and non-contextual word embeddings. We participate in all the proposed subtasks achieving our best result in the controversial humor subtask.

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ES-JUST at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offensive Text Using Deep Learning
Emran Al Bashabsheh | Sanaa Abu Alasal

This research presents the work of the team’s ES-JUST at semEval-2021 task 7 for detecting and rating humor and offensive text using deep learning. The team evaluates several approaches (i.e.Bert, Roberta, XLM-Roberta, and Bert embedding + Bi-LSTM) that employ in four sub-tasks. The first sub-task deal with whether the text is humorous or not. The second sub-task is the degree of humor in the text if the first sub-task is humorous. The third sub-task represents the text is controversial or not if it is humorous. While in the last task is the degree of an offensive in the text. However, Roberta pre-trained model outperforms other approaches and score the highest in all sub-tasks. We rank on the leader board at the evaluation phase are 14, 15, 20, and 5 through 0.9564 F-score, 0.5709 RMSE, 0.4888 F-score, and 0.4467 RMSE results, respectively, for each of the first, second, third, and fourth sub-task, respectively.

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Tsia at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense
Zhengyi Guan | Xiaobing ZXB Zhou

This paper describes our contribution to SemEval-2021 Task 7: Detecting and Rating Humor and Of-fense.This task contains two sub-tasks, sub-task 1and sub-task 2. Among them, sub-task 1 containsthree sub-tasks, sub-task 1a ,sub-task 1b and sub-task 1c.Sub-task 1a is to predict if the text would beconsidered humorous. Sub-task 1c is described asfollows: if the text is classed as humorous, predictif the humor rating would be considered controver-sial, i.e. the variance of the rating between annota-tors is higher than the median.we combined threepre-trained model with CNN to complete these twoclassification sub-tasks. Sub-task 1b is to judge thedegree of humor. Sub-task 2 aims to predict how of-fensive a text would be with values between 0 and5.We use the idea of regression to deal with thesetwo sub-tasks. We analyze the performance of ourmethod and demonstrate the contribution of eachcomponent of our architecture. We have achievedgood results under the combination of multiple pre-training models and optimization methods.

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DLJUST at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Hahackathon: Linking Humor and Offense
Hani Al-Omari | Isra’a AbedulNabi | Rehab Duwairi

Humor detection and rating poses interesting linguistic challenges to NLP; it is highly subjective depending on the perceptions of a joke and the context in which it is used. This paper utilizes and compares transformers models; BERT base and Large, BERTweet, RoBERTa base and Large, and RoBERTa base irony, for detecting and rating humor and offense. The proposed models, where given a text in cased and uncased type obtained from SemEval-2021 Task7: HaHackathon: Linking Humor and Offense Across Different Age Groups. The highest scored model for the first subtask: Humor Detection, is BERTweet base cased model with 0.9540 F1-score, for the second subtask: Average Humor Rating Score, it is BERT Large cased with the minimum RMSE of 0.5555, for the fourth subtask: Average Offensiveness Rating Score, it is BERTweet base cased model with minimum RMSE of 0.4822.

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Gulu at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense
Maoqin Yang

Humor recognition is a challenging task in natural language processing. This document presents my approaches to detect and rate humor and offense from the given text. This task includes 2 tasks: task 1 which contains 3 subtasks (1a, 1b, and 1c), and task 2. Subtask 1a and 1c can be regarded as classification problems and take ALBERT as the basic model. Subtask 1b and 2 can be viewed as regression issues and take RoBERTa as the basic model.

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DUTH at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Is Conventional Machine Learning for Humorous and Offensive Tasks enough in 2021?
Alexandros Karasakalidis | Dimitrios Effrosynidis | Avi Arampatzis

This paper describes the approach that was developed for SemEval 2021 Task 7 (Hahackathon: Incorporating Demographic Factors into Shared Humor Tasks) by the DUTH Team. We used and compared a variety of preprocessing techniques, vectorization methods, and numerous conventional machine learning algorithms, in order to construct classification and regression models for the given tasks. We used majority voting to combine the models’ outputs with small Neural Networks (NN) for classification tasks and their mean for regression for improving our system’s performance. While these methods proved weaker than modern, deep learning models, they are still relevant in research tasks because of their low requirements on computational power and faster training.

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DeepBlueAI at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense with Stacking Diverse Language Model-Based Methods
Bingyan Song | Chunguang Pan | Shengguang Wang | Zhipeng Luo

This paper describes the winning system for SemEval-2021 Task 7: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense. Our strategy is stacking diverse pre-trained language models (PLMs) such as RoBERTa and ALBERT. We first perform fine-tuning on these two PLMs with various hyperparameters and different training strategies. Then a valid stacking mechanism is applied on top of the fine-tuned PLMs to get the final prediction. Experimental results on the dataset released by the organizer of the task show the validity of our method and we win first place and third place for subtask 2 and 1a.

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CS-UM6P at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Deep Multi-Task Learning Model for Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense
Kabil Essefar | Abdellah El Mekki | Abdelkader El Mahdaouy | Nabil El Mamoun | Ismail Berrada

Humor detection has become a topic of interest for several research teams, especially those involved in socio-psychological studies, with the aim to detect the humor and the temper of a targeted population (e.g. a community, a city, a country, the employees of a given company). Most of the existing studies have formulated the humor detection problem as a binary classification task, whereas it revolves around learning the sense of humor by evaluating its different degrees. In this paper, we propose an end-to-end deep Multi-Task Learning (MTL) model to detect and rate humor and offense. It consists of a pre-trained transformer encoder and task-specific attention layers. The model is trained using MTL uncertainty loss weighting to adaptively combine all sub-tasks objective functions. Our MTL model tackles all sub-tasks of the SemEval-2021 Task-7 in one end-to-end deep learning system and shows very promising results.

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hub at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Fusion of ALBERT and Word Frequency Information Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense
Bo Huang | Yang Bai

This paper introduces the system description of the hub team, which explains the related work and experimental results of our team’s participation in SemEval 2021 Task 7: HaHackathon: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense. We successfully submitted the test set prediction results of the two subtasks in the task. The goal of the task is to perform humor detection, grade evaluation, and offensive evaluation on each English text data in the data set. Tasks can be divided into two types of subtasks. One is a text classification task, and the other is a text regression task. What we need to do is to use our method to detect the humor and offensive information of the sentence as accurately as possible. The methods used in the results submitted by our team are mainly composed of ALBERT, CNN, and Tf-Idf algorithms. The result evaluation indicators submitted by the classification task are F1 score and Accuracy. The result evaluation index of the regression task submission is the RMSE. The final scores of the prediction results of the two subtask test sets submitted by our team are task1a 0.921 (F1), task1a 0.9364 (Accuracy), task1b 0.6288 (RMSE), task1c 0.5333 (F1), task1c 0.0.5591 (Accuracy), and task2 0.5027 (RMSE) respectively.

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YoungSheldon at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Fine-tuning Is All You Need
Mayukh Sharma | Ilanthenral Kandasamy | W.b. Vasantha

In this paper, we describe our system used for SemEval 2021 Task 7: HaHackathon: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense. We used a simple fine-tuning approach using different Pre-trained Language Models (PLMs) to evaluate their performance for humor and offense detection. For regression tasks, we averaged the scores of different models leading to better performance than the original models. We participated in all SubTasks. Our best performing system was ranked 4 in SubTask 1-b, 8 in SubTask 1-c, 12 in SubTask 2, and performed well in SubTask 1-a. We further show comprehensive results using different pre-trained language models which will help as baselines for future work.

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MagicPai at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Method for Detecting and Rating Humor Based on Multi-Task Adversarial Training
Jian Ma | Shuyi Xie | Haiqin Yang | Lianxin Jiang | Mengyuan Zhou | Xiaoyi Ruan | Yang Mo

This paper describes MagicPai’s system for SemEval 2021 Task 7, HaHackathon: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense. This task aims to detect whether the text is humorous and how humorous it is. There are four subtasks in the competition. In this paper, we mainly present our solution, a multi-task learning model based on adversarial examples, for task 1a and 1b. More specifically, we first vectorize the cleaned dataset and add the perturbation to obtain more robust embedding representations. We then correct the loss via the confidence level. Finally, we perform interactive joint learning on multiple tasks to capture the relationship between whether the text is humorous and how humorous it is. The final result shows the effectiveness of our system.

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UPB at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Adversarial Multi-Task Learning for Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense
Răzvan-Alexandru Smădu | Dumitru-Clementin Cercel | Mihai Dascalu

Detecting humor is a challenging task since words might share multiple valences and, depending on the context, the same words can be even used in offensive expressions. Neural network architectures based on Transformer obtain state-of-the-art results on several Natural Language Processing tasks, especially text classification. Adversarial learning, combined with other techniques such as multi-task learning, aids neural models learn the intrinsic properties of data. In this work, we describe our adversarial multi-task network, AMTL-Humor, used to detect and rate humor and offensive texts from Task 7 at SemEval-2021. Each branch from the model is focused on solving a related task, and consists of a BiLSTM layer followed by Capsule layers, on top of BERTweet used for generating contextualized embeddings. Our best model consists of an ensemble of all tested configurations, and achieves a 95.66% F1-score and 94.70% accuracy for Task 1a, while obtaining RMSE scores of 0.6200 and 0.5318 for Tasks 1b and 2, respectively.

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Team_KGP at SemEval-2021 Task 7: A Deep Neural System to Detect Humor and Offense with Their Ratings in the Text Data
Anik Mondal | Raksha Sharma

This paper describes the system submitted to SemEval-2021 Task-7 for all four subtasks. Two subtasks focus on detecting humor and offense from the text (binary classification). On the other hand, the other two subtasks predict humor and offense ratings of the text (linear regression). In this paper, we present two different types of fine-tuning methods by using linear layers and bi-LSTM layers on top of the pre-trained BERT model. Results show that our system is able to outperform baseline models by a significant margin. We report F1 scores of 0.90 for the first subtask and 0.53 for the third subtask, while we report an RMSE of 0.57 and 0.58 for the second and fourth subtasks, respectively.

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ZYJ at SemEval-2021 Task 7: HaHackathon: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense with ALBERT-Based Model
Yingjia Zhao | Xin Tao

This article introduces the submission of subtask 1 and subtask 2 that we participate in SemEval-2021 Task 7: HaHackathon: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense, we use a model based on ALBERT that uses ALBERT as the module for extracting text features. We modify the upper layer structure by adding specific networks to better summarize the semantic information. Finally, our system achieves an F-Score of 0.9348 in subtask 1a, RMSE of 0.7214 in subtask 1b, F-Score of 0.4603 in subtask 1c, and RMSE of 0.5204 in subtask 2.

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UoR at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Utilizing Pre-trained DistilBERT Model and Multi-scale CNN for Humor Detection
Zehao Liu | Carl Haines | Huizhi Liang

Humour detection is an interesting but difficult task in NLP. Because humorous might not be obvious in text, it can be embedded into context, hide behind the literal meaning and require prior knowledge to understand. We explored different shallow and deep methods to create a humour detection classifier for task 7-1a. Models like Logistic Regression, LSTM, MLP, CNN were used, and pre-trained models like DistilBert were introduced to generate accurate vector representation for textual data. We focused on applying multi-scale strategy on modelling, and compared different models. Our best model is the DistilBERT+MultiScale CNN, it used different sizes of CNN kernel to get multiple scales of features, which achieved 93.7% F1-score and 92.1% accuracy on the test set.

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TECHSSN at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Humor and Offense detection and classification using ColBERT embeddings
Rajalakshmi Sivanaiah | Angel Deborah S | S Milton Rajendram | Mirnalinee Tt | Abrit Pal Singh | Aviansh Gupta | Ayush Nanda

This paper describes the system used for detecting humor in text. The system developed by the team TECHSSN uses binary classification techniques to classify the text. The data undergoes preprocessing and is given to ColBERT (Contextualized Late Interaction over BERT), a modification of Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT). The model is re-trained and the weights are learned for the dataset. This system was developed for the task 7 of the competition, SemEval 2021.

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Amherst685 at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Joint Modeling of Classification and Regression for Humor and Offense
Brian Zylich | Akshay Gugnani | Gabriel Brookman | Nicholas Samoray

This paper describes our submission to theSemEval’21: Task 7- HaHackathon: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense. In this challenge, we explore intermediate finetuning, backtranslation augmentation, multitask learning, and ensembling of different language models. Curiously, intermediate finetuning and backtranslation do not improve performance, while multitask learning and ensembling do improve performance. We explore why intermediate finetuning and backtranslation do not provide the same benefit as other natural language processing tasks and offer insight into the errors that our model makes. Our best performing system ranks 7th on Task 1bwith an RMSE of 0.5339

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DuluthNLP at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Fine-Tuning RoBERTa Model for Humor Detection and Offense Rating
Samuel Akrah

This paper presents the DuluthNLP submission to Task 7 of the SemEval 2021 competition on Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense. In it, we explain the approach used to train the model together with the process of fine-tuning our model in getting the results. We focus on humor detection, rating, and of-fense rating, representing three out of the four subtasks that were provided. We show that optimizing hyper-parameters for learning rate, batch size and number of epochs can increase the accuracy and F1 score for humor detection

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CSECU-DSG at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense Employing Transformers
Afrin Sultana | Nabila Ayman | Abu Nowshed Chy

With the emerging trends of using online platforms, peoples are increasingly interested in express their opinion through humorous texts. Identifying and rating humorous texts poses unique challenges to NLP due to subjective phenomena i.e. humor may vary to gender, profession, age, and classes of people. Besides, words with multiple senses, cultural domain, and pragmatic competence also need to be considered. A humorous text may be offensive to others. To address these challenges SemEval-2021 introduced a HaHackathon task focusing on detecting and rating humorous and offensive texts. This paper describes our participation in this task. We employed a stacked embedding and fine-tuned transformer models based classification and regression approach from the features from GPT2 medium, BERT, and RoBERTa transformer models. Besides, we utilized the fine-tuned BERT and RoBERTa models to examine the performances. Our method achieved competitive performances in this task.

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RedwoodNLP at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Ensembled Pretrained and Lightweight Models for Humor Detection
Nathan Chi | Ryan Chi

An understanding of humor is an essential component of human-facing NLP systems. In this paper, we investigate several methods for detecting humor in short statements as part of Semeval-2021 Shared Task 7. For Task 1a, we apply an ensemble of fine-tuned pre-trained language models; for Tasks 1b, 1c, and 2a, we investigate various tree-based and linear machine learning models. Our final system achieves an F1-score of 0.9571 (ranked 24 / 58) on Task 1a, an RMSE of 0.5580 (ranked 18 / 50) on Task 1b, an F1-score of 0.5024 (ranked 26 / 36) on Task 1c, and an RMSE of 0.7229 (ranked 45 / 48) on Task 2a.

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EndTimes at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense with BERT and Ensembles
Chandan Kumar Pandey | Chirag Singh | Karan Mangla

This paper describes Humor-BERT, a set of BERT Large based models that we used in the SemEval-2021 Task 7: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense. It presents pre and post processing techniques, variable threshold learning, meta learning and Ensemble approach to solve various sub-tasks that were part of the challenge. We also present a comparative analysis of various models we tried. Our method was ranked 4th in Humor Controversy Detection, 8th in Humor Detection, 19th in Average Offense Score prediction and 40th in Average Humor Score prediction globally. F1 score obtained for Humor classification was 0.9655 and for Controversy detection it was 0.6261. Our user name on the leader board is ThisIstheEnd and team name is EndTimes.

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IIITH at SemEval-2021 Task 7: Leveraging transformer-based humourous and offensive text detection architectures using lexical and hurtlex features and task adaptive pretraining
Tathagata Raha | Ishan Sanjeev Upadhyay | Radhika Mamidi | Vasudeva Varma

This paper describes our approach (IIITH) for SemEval-2021 Task 5: HaHackathon: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense. Our results focus on two major objectives: (i) Effect of task adaptive pretraining on the performance of transformer based models (ii) How does lexical and hurtlex features help in quantifying humour and offense. In this paper, we provide a detailed description of our approach along with comparisions mentioned above.

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FII FUNNY at SemEval-2021 Task 7: HaHackathon: Detecting and rating Humor and Offense
Mihai Samson | Daniela Gifu

The “HaHackathon: Detecting and Rating Humor and Offense” task at the SemEval 2021 competition focuses on detecting and rating the humor level in sentences, as well as the level of offensiveness contained in these texts with humoristic tones. In this paper, we present an approach based on recent Deep Learning techniques by both trying to train the models based on the dataset solely and by trying to fine-tune pre-trained models on the gigantic corpus.

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Counts@IITK at SemEval-2021 Task 8: SciBERT Based Entity And Semantic Relation Extraction For Scientific Data
Akash Gangwar | Sabhay Jain | Shubham Sourav | Ashutosh Modi

This paper presents the system for SemEval 2021 Task 8 (MeasEval). MeasEval is a novel span extraction, classification, and relation extraction task focused on finding quantities, attributes of these quantities, and additional information, including the related measured entities, properties, and measurement contexts. Our submitted system, which placed fifth (team rank) on the leaderboard, consisted of SciBERT with [CLS] token embedding and CRF layer on top. We were also placed first in Quantity (tied) and Unit subtasks, second in MeasuredEntity, Modifier and Qualifies subtasks, and third in Qualifier subtask.

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CONNER: A Cascade Count and Measurement Extraction Tool for Scientific Discourse
Jiarun Cao | Yuejia Xiang | Yunyan Zhang | Zhiyuan Qi | Xi Chen | Yefeng Zheng

This paper presents our wining contribution to SemEval 2021 Task 8: MeasEval. The purpose of this task is identifying the counts and measurements from clinical scientific discourse, including quantities, entities, properties, qualifiers, units, modifiers, and their mutual relations. This task can be induced to a joint entity and relation extraction problem. Accordingly, we propose CONNER, a cascade count and measurement extraction tool that can identify entities and the corresponding relations in a two-step pipeline model. We provide a detailed description of the proposed model hereinafter. Furthermore, the impact of the essential modules and our in-process technical schemes are also investigated.

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Stanford MLab at SemEval-2021 Task 8: 48 Hours Is All You Need
Patrick Liu | Niveditha Iyer | Erik Rozi | Ethan A. Chi

This paper presents our system for the Quantity span identification, Unit of measurement identification and Value modifier classification subtasks of the MeasEval 2021 task. The purpose of the Quantity span identification task was to locate spans of text that contain a count or measurement, consisting of a value, usually followed by a unit and occasionally additional modifiers. The goal of the modifier classification task was to determine whether an associated text fragment served to indicate range, tolerance, mean value, etc. of a quantity. The developed systems used pre-trained BERT models which were fine-tuned for the task at hand. We present our system, investigate how architectural decisions affected model predictions, and conduct an error analysis. Overall, our system placed 12 / 19 in the shared task and in the 2nd place for the Unit subcategory.

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LIORI at SemEval-2021 Task 8: Ask Transformer for measurements
Adis Davletov | Denis Gordeev | Nikolay Arefyev | Emil Davletov

This work describes our approach for subtasks of SemEval-2021 Task 8: MeasEval: Counts and Measurements which took the official first place in the competition. To solve all subtasks we use multi-task learning in a question-answering-like manner. We also use learnable scalar weights to weight subtasks’ contribution to the final loss in multi-task training. We fine-tune LUKE to extract quantity spans and we fine-tune RoBERTa to extract everything related to found quantities, including quantities themselves.

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Sattiy at SemEval-2021 Task 9: An Ensemble Solution for Statement Verification and Evidence Finding with Tables
Xiaoyi Ruan | Meizhi Jin | Jian Ma | Haiqin Yang | Lianxin Jiang | Yang Mo | Mengyuan Zhou

Question answering from semi-structured tables can be seen as a semantic parsing task and is significant and practical for pushing the boundary of natural language understanding. Existing research mainly focuses on understanding contents from unstructured evidence, e.g., news, natural language sentences and documents. The task of verification from structured evidence, such as tables, charts, and databases, is still less-explored. This paper describes sattiy team’s system in SemEval-2021 task 9: Statement Verification and Evidence Finding with Tables (SEM-TAB-FACT)(CITATION). This competition aims to verify statements and to find evidence from tables for scientific articles and to promote proper interpretation of the surrounding article. In this paper we exploited ensemble models of pre-trained language models over tables, TaPas and TaBERT, for Task A and adjust the result based on some rules extracted for Task B. Finally, in the leadboard, we attain the F1 scores of 0.8496 and 0.7732 in Task A for the 2-way and 3-way evaluation, respectively, and the F1 score of 0.4856 in Task B.

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Volta at SemEval-2021 Task 9: Statement Verification and Evidence Finding with Tables using TAPAS and Transfer Learning
Devansh Gautam | Kshitij Gupta | Manish Shrivastava

Tables are widely used in various kinds of documents to present information concisely. Understanding tables is a challenging problem that requires an understanding of language and table structure, along with numerical and logical reasoning. In this paper, we present our systems to solve Task 9 of SemEval-2021: Statement Verification and Evidence Finding with Tables (SEM-TAB-FACTS). The task consists of two subtasks: (A) Given a table and a statement, predicting whether the table supports the statement and (B) Predicting which cells in the table provide evidence for/against the statement. We fine-tune TAPAS (a model which extends BERT’s architecture to capture tabular structure) for both the subtasks as it has shown state-of-the-art performance in various table understanding tasks. In subtask A, we evaluate how transfer learning and standardizing tables to have a single header row improves TAPAS’ performance. In subtask B, we evaluate how different fine-tuning strategies can improve TAPAS’ performance. Our systems achieve an F1 score of 67.34 in subtask A three-way classification, 72.89 in subtask A two-way classification, and 62.95 in subtask B.

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KaushikAcharya at SemEval-2021 Task 9: Candidate Generation for Fact Verification over Tables
Kaushik Acharya

This paper describes the system submitted in the SemEval-2021 Statement Verification and Evidence Finding with Tables task. The system relies on candidate generation for logical forms on the table based on keyword matching and dependency parsing on the claim statements.

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AttesTable at SemEval-2021 Task 9: Extending Statement Verification with Tables for Unknown Class, and Semantic Evidence Finding
Harshit Varma | Aadish Jain | Pratik Ratadiya | Abhishek Rathi

This paper describes our approach for Task 9 of SemEval 2021: Statement Verification and Evidence Finding with Tables. We participated in both subtasks, namely statement verification and evidence finding. For the subtask of statement verification, we extend the TAPAS model to adapt to the ‘unknown’ class of statements by finetuning it on an augmented version of the task data. For the subtask of evidence finding, we finetune the DistilBERT model in a Siamese setting.

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MedAI at SemEval-2021 Task 10: Negation-aware Pre-training for Source-free Negation Detection Domain Adaptation
Jinquan Sun | Qi Zhang | Yu Wang | Lei Zhang

Due to the increasing concerns for data privacy, source-free unsupervised domain adaptation attracts more and more research attention, where only a trained source model is assumed to be available, while the labeled source data remain private. To get promising adaptation results, we need to find effective ways to transfer knowledge learned in source domain and leverage useful domain specific information from target domain at the same time. This paper describes our winning contribution to SemEval 2021 Task 10: Source-Free Domain Adaptation for Semantic Processing. Our key idea is to leverage the model trained on source domain data to generate pseudo labels for target domain samples. Besides, we propose Negation-aware Pre-training (NAP) to incorporate negation knowledge into model. Our method win the 1st place with F1-score of 0.822 on the official blind test set of Negation Detection Track.

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YNU-HPCC at SemEval-2021 Task 10: Using a Transformer-based Source-Free Domain Adaptation Model for Semantic Processing
Zhewen Yu | Jin Wang | Xuejie Zhang

Data sharing restrictions are common in NLP datasets. The purpose of this task is to develop a model trained in a source domain to make predictions for a target domain with related domain data. To address the issue, the organizers provided the models that fine-tuned a large number of source domain data on pre-trained models and the dev data for participants. But the source domain data was not distributed. This paper describes the provided model to the NER (Name entity recognition) task and the ways to develop the model. As a little data provided, pre-trained models are suitable to solve the cross-domain tasks. The models fine-tuned by large number of another domain could be effective in new domain because the task had no change.

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ECNUICA at SemEval-2021 Task 11: Rule based Information Extraction Pipeline
Jiaju Lin | Jing Ling | Zhiwei Wang | Jiawei Liu | Qin Chen | Liang He

This paper presents our endeavor for solving task11, NLPContributionGraph, of SemEval-2021. The purpose of the task was to extract triples from a paper in the Nature Language Processing field for constructing an Open Research Knowledge Graph. The task includes three sub-tasks: detecting the contribution sentences in papers, identifying scientific terms and predicate phrases from the contribution sentences; and inferring triples in the form of (subject, predicate, object) as statements for Knowledge Graph building. In this paper, we apply an ensemble of various fine-tuned pre-trained language models (PLM) for tasks one and two. In addition, self-training methods are adopted for tackling the shortage of annotated data. For the third task, rather than using classic neural open information extraction (OIE) architectures, we generate potential triples via manually designed rules and develop a binary classifier to differentiate positive ones from others. The quantitative results show that we obtain the 4th, 2nd, and 2nd rank in three evaluation phases.

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UOR at SemEval-2021 Task 12: On Crowd Annotations; Learning with Disagreements to optimise crowd truth
Emmanuel Osei-Brefo | Thanet Markchom | Huizhi Liang

Crowdsourcing has been ubiquitously used for annotating enormous collections of data. However, the major obstacles to using crowd-sourced labels are noise and errors from non-expert annotations. In this work, two approaches dealing with the noise and errors in crowd-sourced labels are proposed. The first approach uses Sharpness-Aware Minimization (SAM), an optimization technique robust to noisy labels. The other approach leverages a neural network layer called softmax-Crowdlayer specifically designed to learn from crowd-sourced annotations. According to the results, the proposed approaches can improve the performance of the Wide Residual Network model and Multi-layer Perception model applied on crowd-sourced datasets in the image processing domain. It also has similar and comparable results with the majority voting technique when applied to the sequential data domain whereby the Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT) is used as the base model in both instances.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 18th SIGMORPHON Workshop on Computational Research in Phonetics, Phonology, and Morphology

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Proceedings of the 18th SIGMORPHON Workshop on Computational Research in Phonetics, Phonology, and Morphology
Garrett Nicolai | Kyle Gorman | Ryan Cotterell

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Towards Detection and Remediation of Phonemic Confusion
Francois Roewer-Despres | Arnold Yeung | Ilan Kogan

Reducing communication breakdown is critical to success in interactive NLP applications, such as dialogue systems. To this end, we propose a confusion-mitigation framework for the detection and remediation of communication breakdown. In this work, as a first step towards implementing this framework, we focus on detecting phonemic sources of confusion. As a proof-of-concept, we evaluate two neural architectures in predicting the probability that a listener will misunderstand phonemes in an utterance. We show that both neural models outperform a weighted n-gram baseline, showing early promise for the broader framework.

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Recursive prosody is not finite-state
Hossep Dolatian | Aniello De Santo | Thomas Graf

This paper investigates bounds on the generative capacity of prosodic processes, by focusing on the complexity of recursive prosody in coordination contexts in English (Wagner, 2010). Although all phonological processes and most prosodic processes are computationally regular string languages, we show that recursive prosody is not. The output string language is instead parallel multiple context-free (Seki et al., 1991). We evaluate the complexity of the pattern over strings, and then move on to a characterization over trees that requires the expressivity of multi bottom-up tree transducers. In doing so, we provide a foundation for future mathematically grounded investigations of the syntax-prosody interface.

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The Match-Extend serialization algorithm in Multiprecedence
Maxime Papillon

Raimy (1999; 2000a; 2000b) proposed a graphical formalism for modeling reduplication, originallymostly focused on phonological overapplication in a derivational framework. This framework is now known as Precedence-based phonology or Multiprecedence phonology. Raimy’s idea is that the segments at the input to the phonology are not totally ordered by precedence. This paper tackles a challenge that arose with Raimy’s work, the development of a deterministic serialization algorithm as part of the derivation of surface forms. The Match-Extend algorithm introduced here requires fewer assumptions and sticks tighter to the attested typology. The algorithm also contains no parameter or constraint specific to individual graphs or topologies, unlike previous proposals. Match-Extend requires nothing except knowing the last added set of links.

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Incorporating tone in the calculation of phonotactic probability
James Kirby

This paper investigates how the ordering of tone relative to the segmental string influences the calculation of phonotactic probability. Trigram and recurrent neural network models were trained on syllable lexicons of four Asian syllable-tone languages (Mandarin, Thai, Vietnamese, and Cantonese) in which tone was treated as a segment occurring in different positions in the string. For trigram models, the optimal permutation interacted with language, while neural network models were relatively unaffected by tone position in all languages. In addition to providing a baseline for future evaluation, these results suggest that phonotactic probability is robust to choices of how tone is ordered with respect to other elements in the syllable.

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MorphyNet: a Large Multilingual Database of Derivational and Inflectional Morphology
Khuyagbaatar Batsuren | Gábor Bella | Fausto Giunchiglia

Large-scale morphological databases provide essential input to a wide range of NLP applications. Inflectional data is of particular importance for morphologically rich (agglutinative and highly inflecting) languages, and derivations can be used, e.g. to infer the semantics of out-of-vocabulary words. Extending the scope of state-of-the-art multilingual morphological databases, we announce the release of MorphyNet, a high-quality resource with 15 languages, 519k derivational and 10.1M inflectional entries, and a rich set of morphological features. MorphyNet was extracted from Wiktionary using both hand-crafted and automated methods, and was manually evaluated to be of a precision higher than 98%. Both the resource generation logic and the resulting database are made freely available and are reusable as stand-alone tools or in combination with existing resources.

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A Study of Morphological Robustness of Neural Machine Translation
Sai Muralidhar Jayanthi | Adithya Pratapa

In this work, we analyze the robustness of neural machine translation systems towards grammatical perturbations in the source. In particular, we focus on morphological inflection related perturbations. While this has been recently studied for English→French (MORPHEUS) (Tan et al., 2020), it is unclear how this extends to Any→English translation systems. We propose MORPHEUS-MULTILINGUAL that utilizes UniMorph dictionaries to identify morphological perturbations to source that adversely affect the translation models. Along with an analysis of state-of-the-art pretrained MT systems, we train and analyze systems for 11 language pairs using the multilingual TED corpus (Qi et al., 2018). We also compare this to actual errors of non-native speakers using Grammatical Error Correction datasets. Finally, we present a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the robustness of Any→English translation systems.

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Sample-efficient Linguistic Generalizations through Program Synthesis: Experiments with Phonology Problems
Saujas Vaduguru | Aalok Sathe | Monojit Choudhury | Dipti Sharma

Neural models excel at extracting statistical patterns from large amounts of data, but struggle to learn patterns or reason about language from only a few examples. In this paper, we ask: Can we learn explicit rules that generalize well from only a few examples? We explore this question using program synthesis. We develop a synthesis model to learn phonology rules as programs in a domain-specific language. We test the ability of our models to generalize from few training examples using our new dataset of problems from the Linguistics Olympiad, a challenging set of tasks that require strong linguistic reasoning ability. In addition to being highly sample-efficient, our approach generates human-readable programs, and allows control over the generalizability of the learnt programs.

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Findings of the SIGMORPHON 2021 Shared Task on Unsupervised Morphological Paradigm Clustering
Adam Wiemerslage | Arya D. McCarthy | Alexander Erdmann | Garrett Nicolai | Manex Agirrezabal | Miikka Silfverberg | Mans Hulden | Katharina Kann

We describe the second SIGMORPHON shared task on unsupervised morphology: the goal of the SIGMORPHON 2021 Shared Task on Unsupervised Morphological Paradigm Clustering is to cluster word types from a raw text corpus into paradigms. To this end, we release corpora for 5 development and 9 test languages, as well as gold partial paradigms for evaluation. We receive 14 submissions from 4 teams that follow different strategies, and the best performing system is based on adaptor grammars. Results vary significantly across languages. However, all systems are outperformed by a supervised lemmatizer, implying that there is still room for improvement.

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Adaptor Grammars for Unsupervised Paradigm Clustering
Kate McCurdy | Sharon Goldwater | Adam Lopez

This work describes the Edinburgh submission to the SIGMORPHON 2021 Shared Task 2 on unsupervised morphological paradigm clustering. Given raw text input, the task was to assign each token to a cluster with other tokens from the same paradigm. We use Adaptor Grammar segmentations combined with frequency-based heuristics to predict paradigm clusters. Our system achieved the highest average F1 score across 9 test languages, placing first out of 15 submissions.

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Orthographic vs. Semantic Representations for Unsupervised Morphological Paradigm Clustering
E. Margaret Perkoff | Josh Daniels | Alexis Palmer

This paper presents two different systems for unsupervised clustering of morphological paradigms, in the context of the SIGMORPHON 2021 Shared Task 2. The goal of this task is to correctly cluster words in a given language by their inflectional paradigm, without any previous knowledge of the language and without supervision from labeled data of any sort. The words in a single morphological paradigm are different inflectional variants of an underlying lemma, meaning that the words share a common core meaning. They also - usually - show a high degree of orthographical similarity. Following these intuitions, we investigate KMeans clustering using two different types of word representations: one focusing on orthographical similarity and the other focusing on semantic similarity. Additionally, we discuss the merits of randomly initialized centroids versus pre-defined centroids for clustering. Pre-defined centroids are identified based on either a standard longest common substring algorithm or a connected graph method built off of longest common substring. For all development languages, the character-based embeddings perform similarly to the baseline, and the semantic embeddings perform well below the baseline. Analysis of the systems’ errors suggests that clustering based on orthographic representations is suitable for a wide range of morphological mechanisms, particularly as part of a larger system.

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Unsupervised Paradigm Clustering Using Transformation Rules
Changbing Yang | Garrett Nicolai | Miikka Silfverberg

This paper describes the submission of the CU-UBC team for the SIGMORPHON 2021 Shared Task 2: Unsupervised morphological paradigm clustering. Our system generates paradigms using morphological transformation rules which are discovered from raw data. We experiment with two methods for discovering rules. Our first approach generates prefix and suffix transformations between similar strings. Secondly, we experiment with more general rules which can apply transformations inside the input strings in addition to prefix and suffix transformations. We find that the best overall performance is delivered by prefix and suffix rules but more general transformation rules perform better for languages with templatic morphology and very high morpheme-to-word ratios.

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Paradigm Clustering with Weighted Edit Distance
Andrew Gerlach | Adam Wiemerslage | Katharina Kann

This paper describes our system for the SIGMORPHON 2021 Shared Task on Unsupervised Morphological Paradigm Clustering, which asks participants to group inflected forms together according their underlying lemma without the aid of annotated training data. We employ agglomerative clustering to group word forms together using a metric that combines an orthographic distance and a semantic distance from word embeddings. We experiment with two variations of an edit distance-based model for quantifying orthographic distance, but, due to time constraints, our system does not improve over the shared task’s baseline system.

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Results of the Second SIGMORPHON Shared Task on Multilingual Grapheme-to-Phoneme Conversion
Lucas F.E. Ashby | Travis M. Bartley | Simon Clematide | Luca Del Signore | Cameron Gibson | Kyle Gorman | Yeonju Lee-Sikka | Peter Makarov | Aidan Malanoski | Sean Miller | Omar Ortiz | Reuben Raff | Arundhati Sengupta | Bora Seo | Yulia Spektor | Winnie Yan

Grapheme-to-phoneme conversion is an important component in many speech technologies, but until recently there were no multilingual benchmarks for this task. The second iteration of the SIGMORPHON shared task on multilingual grapheme-to-phoneme conversion features many improvements from the previous year’s task (Gorman et al. 2020), including additional languages, a stronger baseline, three subtasks varying the amount of available resources, extensive quality assurance procedures, and automated error analyses. Four teams submitted a total of thirteen systems, at best achieving relative reductions of word error rate of 11% in the high-resource subtask and 4% in the low-resource subtask.

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Data augmentation for low-resource grapheme-to-phoneme mapping
Michael Hammond

In this paper we explore a very simple neural approach to mapping orthography to phonetic transcription in a low-resource context. The basic idea is to start from a baseline system and focus all efforts on data augmentation. We will see that some techniques work, but others do not.

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Linguistic Knowledge in Multilingual Grapheme-to-Phoneme Conversion
Roger Yu-Hsiang Lo | Garrett Nicolai

This paper documents the UBC Linguistics team’s approach to the SIGMORPHON 2021 Grapheme-to-Phoneme Shared Task, concentrating on the low-resource setting. Our systems expand the baseline model with simple modifications informed by syllable structure and error analysis. In-depth investigation of test-set predictions shows that our best model rectifies a significant number of mistakes compared to the baseline prediction, besting all other submissions. Our results validate the view that careful error analysis in conjunction with linguistic knowledge can lead to more effective computational modeling.

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Avengers, Ensemble! Benefits of ensembling in grapheme-to-phoneme prediction
Vagrant Gautam | Wang Yau Li | Zafarullah Mahmood | Fred Mailhot | Shreekantha Nadig | Riqiang Wang | Nathan Zhang

We describe three baseline beating systems for the high-resource English-only sub-task of the SIGMORPHON 2021 Shared Task 1: a small ensemble that Dialpad’s speech recognition team uses internally, a well-known off-the-shelf model, and a larger ensemble model comprising these and others. We additionally discuss the challenges related to the provided data, along with the processing steps we took.

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CLUZH at SIGMORPHON 2021 Shared Task on Multilingual Grapheme-to-Phoneme Conversion: Variations on a Baseline
Simon Clematide | Peter Makarov

This paper describes the submission by the team from the Department of Computational Linguistics, Zurich University, to the Multilingual Grapheme-to-Phoneme Conversion (G2P) Task 1 of the SIGMORPHON 2021 challenge in the low and medium settings. The submission is a variation of our 2020 G2P system, which serves as the baseline for this year’s challenge. The system is a neural transducer that operates over explicit edit actions and is trained with imitation learning. For this challenge, we experimented with the following changes: a) emitting phoneme segments instead of single character phonemes, b) input character dropout, c) a mogrifier LSTM decoder (Melis et al., 2019), d) enriching the decoder input with the currently attended input character, e) parallel BiLSTM encoders, and f) an adaptive batch size scheduler. In the low setting, our best ensemble improved over the baseline, however, in the medium setting, the baseline was stronger on average, although for certain languages improvements could be observed.

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What transfers in morphological inflection? Experiments with analogical models
Micha Elsner

We investigate how abstract processes like suffixation can be learned from morphological inflection task data using an analogical memory-based framework. In this framework, the inflection target form is specified by providing an example inflection of another word in the language. We show that this model is capable of near-baseline performance on the SigMorphon 2020 inflection challenge. Such a model can make predictions for unseen languages, allowing us to perform one-shot inflection on natural languages and investigate morphological transfer with synthetic probes. Accuracy for one-shot transfer can be unexpectedly high for some target languages (88% in Shona) and language families (53% across Romance). Probe experiments show that the model learns partially generalizable representations of prefixation, suffixation and reduplication, aiding its ability to transfer. We argue that the degree of generality of these process representations also helps to explain transfer results from previous research.

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Simple induction of (deterministic) probabilistic finite-state automata for phonotactics by stochastic gradient descent
Huteng Dai | Richard Futrell

We introduce a simple and highly general phonotactic learner which induces a probabilistic finite-state automaton from word-form data. We describe the learner and show how to parameterize it to induce unrestricted regular languages, as well as how to restrict it to certain subregular classes such as Strictly k-Local and Strictly k-Piecewise languages. We evaluate the learner on its ability to learn phonotactic constraints in toy examples and in datasets of Quechua and Navajo. We find that an unrestricted learner is the most accurate overall when modeling attested forms not seen in training; however, only the learner restricted to the Strictly Piecewise language class successfully captures certain nonlocal phonotactic constraints. Our learner serves as a baseline for more sophisticated methods.

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Recognizing Reduplicated Forms: Finite-State Buffered Machines
Yang Wang

Total reduplication is common in natural language phonology and morphology. However, formally as copying on reduplicants of unbounded size, unrestricted total reduplication requires computational power beyond context-free, while other phonological and morphological patterns are regular, or even sub-regular. Thus, existing language classes characterizing reduplicated strings inevitably include typologically unattested context-free patterns, such as reversals. This paper extends regular languages to incorporate reduplication by introducing a new computational device: finite state buffered machine (FSBMs). We give its mathematical definitions and discuss some closure properties of the corresponding set of languages. As a result, the class of regular languages and languages derived from them through a copying mechanism is characterized. Suggested by previous literature, this class of languages should approach the characterization of natural language word sets.

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An FST morphological analyzer for the Gitksan language
Clarissa Forbes | Garrett Nicolai | Miikka Silfverberg

This paper presents a finite-state morphological analyzer for the Gitksan language. The analyzer draws from a 1250-token Eastern dialect wordlist. It is based on finite-state technology and additionally includes two extensions which can provide analyses for out-of-vocabulary words: rules for generating predictable dialect variants, and a neural guesser component. The pre-neural analyzer, tested against interlinear-annotated texts from multiple dialects, achieves coverage of (75-81%), and maintains high precision (95-100%). The neural extension improves coverage at the cost of lowered precision.

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Comparative Error Analysis in Neural and Finite-state Models for Unsupervised Character-level Transduction
Maria Ryskina | Eduard Hovy | Taylor Berg-Kirkpatrick | Matthew R. Gormley

Traditionally, character-level transduction problems have been solved with finite-state models designed to encode structural and linguistic knowledge of the underlying process, whereas recent approaches rely on the power and flexibility of sequence-to-sequence models with attention. Focusing on the less explored unsupervised learning scenario, we compare the two model classes side by side and find that they tend to make different types of errors even when achieving comparable performance. We analyze the distributions of different error classes using two unsupervised tasks as testbeds: converting informally romanized text into the native script of its language (for Russian, Arabic, and Kannada) and translating between a pair of closely related languages (Serbian and Bosnian). Finally, we investigate how combining finite-state and sequence-to-sequence models at decoding time affects the output quantitatively and qualitatively.

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Finite-state Model of Shupamem Reduplication
Magdalena Markowska | Jeffrey Heinz | Owen Rambow

Shupamem, a language of Western Cameroon, is a tonal language which also exhibits the morpho-phonological process of full reduplication. This creates two challenges for finite-state model of its morpho-syntax and morphophonology: how to manage the full reduplication and the autosegmental nature of lexical tone. Dolatian and Heinz (2020) explain how 2-way finite-state transducers can model full reduplication without an exponential increase in states, and finite-state transducers with multiple tapes have been used to model autosegmental tiers, including tone (Wiebe, 1992; Dolatian and Rawski, 2020a). Here we synthesize 2-way finite-state transducers and multitape transducers, resulting in a finite-state formalism that subsumes both, to account for the full reduplicative processes in Shupamem which also affect tone.

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Improved pronunciation prediction accuracy using morphology
Dravyansh Sharma | Saumya Sahai | Neha Chaudhari | Antoine Bruguier

Pronunciation lexicons and prediction models are a key component in several speech synthesis and recognition systems. We know that morphologically related words typically follow a fixed pattern of pronunciation which can be described by language-specific paradigms. In this work we explore how deep recurrent neural networks can be used to automatically learn and exploit this pattern to improve the pronunciation prediction quality of words related by morphological inflection. We propose two novel approaches for supplying morphological information, using the word’s morphological class and its lemma, which are typically annotated in standard lexicons. We report improvements across a number of European languages with varying degrees of phonological and morphological complexity, and two language families, with greater improvements for languages where the pronunciation prediction task is inherently more challenging. We also observe that combining bidirectional LSTM networks with attention mechanisms is an effective neural approach for the computational problem considered, across languages. Our approach seems particularly beneficial in the low resource setting, both by itself and in conjunction with transfer learning.

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SIGMORPHON 2021 Shared Task on Morphological Reinflection: Generalization Across Languages
Tiago Pimentel | Maria Ryskina | Sabrina J. Mielke | Shijie Wu | Eleanor Chodroff | Brian Leonard | Garrett Nicolai | Yustinus Ghanggo Ate | Salam Khalifa | Nizar Habash | Charbel El-Khaissi | Omer Goldman | Michael Gasser | William Lane | Matt Coler | Arturo Oncevay | Jaime Rafael Montoya Samame | Gema Celeste Silva Villegas | Adam Ek | Jean-Philippe Bernardy | Andrey Shcherbakov | Aziyana Bayyr-ool | Karina Sheifer | Sofya Ganieva | Matvey Plugaryov | Elena Klyachko | Ali Salehi | Andrew Krizhanovsky | Natalia Krizhanovsky | Clara Vania | Sardana Ivanova | Aelita Salchak | Christopher Straughn | Zoey Liu | Jonathan North Washington | Duygu Ataman | Witold Kieraś | Marcin Woliński | Totok Suhardijanto | Niklas Stoehr | Zahroh Nuriah | Shyam Ratan | Francis M. Tyers | Edoardo M. Ponti | Grant Aiton | Richard J. Hatcher | Emily Prud’hommeaux | Ritesh Kumar | Mans Hulden | Botond Barta | Dorina Lakatos | Gábor Szolnok | Judit Ács | Mohit Raj | David Yarowsky | Ryan Cotterell | Ben Ambridge | Ekaterina Vylomova

This year’s iteration of the SIGMORPHON Shared Task on morphological reinflection focuses on typological diversity and cross-lingual variation of morphosyntactic features. In terms of the task, we enrich UniMorph with new data for 32 languages from 13 language families, with most of them being under-resourced: Kunwinjku, Classical Syriac, Arabic (Modern Standard, Egyptian, Gulf), Hebrew, Amharic, Aymara, Magahi, Braj, Kurdish (Central, Northern, Southern), Polish, Karelian, Livvi, Ludic, Veps, Võro, Evenki, Xibe, Tuvan, Sakha, Turkish, Indonesian, Kodi, Seneca, Asháninka, Yanesha, Chukchi, Itelmen, Eibela. We evaluate six systems on the new data and conduct an extensive error analysis of the systems’ predictions. Transformer-based models generally demonstrate superior performance on the majority of languages, achieving >90% accuracy on 65% of them. The languages on which systems yielded low accuracy are mainly under-resourced, with a limited amount of data. Most errors made by the systems are due to allomorphy, honorificity, and form variation. In addition, we observe that systems especially struggle to inflect multiword lemmas. The systems also produce misspelled forms or end up in repetitive loops (e.g., RNN-based models). Finally, we report a large drop in systems’ performance on previously unseen lemmas.

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Training Strategies for Neural Multilingual Morphological Inflection
Adam Ek | Jean-Philippe Bernardy

This paper presents the submission of team GUCLASP to SIGMORPHON 2021 Shared Task on Generalization in Morphological Inflection Generation. We develop a multilingual model for Morphological Inflection and primarily focus on improving the model by using various training strategies to improve accuracy and generalization across languages.

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BME Submission for SIGMORPHON 2021 Shared Task 0. A Three Step Training Approach with Data Augmentation for Morphological Inflection
Gábor Szolnok | Botond Barta | Dorina Lakatos | Judit Ács

We present the BME submission for the SIGMORPHON 2021 Task 0 Part 1, Generalization Across Typologically Diverse Languages shared task. We use an LSTM encoder-decoder model with three step training that is first trained on all languages, then fine-tuned on each language family and finally fine-tuned on individual languages. We use a different type of data augmentation technique in the first two steps. Our system outperformed the only other submission. Although it remains worse than the Transformer baseline released by the organizers, our model is simpler and our data augmentation techniques are easily applicable to new languages. We perform ablation studies and show that the augmentation techniques and the three training steps often help but sometimes have a negative effect. Our code is publicly available.

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Not Quite There Yet: Combining Analogical Patterns and Encoder-Decoder Networks for Cognitively Plausible Inflection
Basilio Calderone | Nabil Hathout | Olivier Bonami

The paper presents four models submitted to Part 2 of the SIGMORPHON 2021 Shared Task 0, which aims at replicating human judgements on the inflection of nonce lexemes. Our goal is to explore the usefulness of combining pre-compiled analogical patterns with an encoder-decoder architecture. Two models are designed using such patterns either in the input or the output of the network. Two extra models controlled for the role of raw similarity of nonce inflected forms to existing inflected forms in the same paradigm cell, and the role of the type frequency of analogical patterns. Our strategy is entirely endogenous in the sense that the models appealing solely to the data provided by the SIGMORPHON organisers, without using external resources. Our model 2 ranks second among all submitted systems, suggesting that the inclusion of analogical patterns in the network architecture is useful in mimicking speakers’ predictions.

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Were We There Already? Applying Minimal Generalization to the SIGMORPHON-UniMorph Shared Task on Cognitively Plausible Morphological Inflection
Colin Wilson | Jane S.Y. Li

Morphological rules with various levels of specificity can be learned from example lexemes by recursive application of minimal generalization (Albright and Hayes, 2002, 2003). A model that learns rules solely through minimal generalization was used to predict average human wug-test ratings from German, English, and Dutch in the SIGMORPHON-UniMorph 2021 Shared Task, with competitive results. Some formal properties of the minimal generalization operation were proved. An automatic method was developed to create wug-test stimuli for future experiments that investigate whether the model’s morphological generalizations are too minimal.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Computational Typology and Multilingual NLP

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Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Computational Typology and Multilingual NLP
Ekaterina Vylomova | Elizabeth Salesky | Sabrina Mielke | Gabriella Lapesa | Ritesh Kumar | Harald Hammarström | Ivan Vulić | Anna Korhonen | Roi Reichart | Edoardo Maria Ponti | Ryan Cotterell

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OTEANN: Estimating the Transparency of Orthographies with an Artificial Neural Network
Xavier Marjou

To transcribe spoken language to written medium, most alphabets enable an unambiguous sound-to-letter rule. However, some writing systems have distanced themselves from this simple concept and little work exists in Natural Language Processing (NLP) on measuring such distance. In this study, we use an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model to evaluate the transparency between written words and their pronunciation, hence its name Orthographic Transparency Estimation with an ANN (OTEANN). Based on datasets derived from Wikimedia dictionaries, we trained and tested this model to score the percentage of false predictions in phoneme-to-grapheme and grapheme-to-phoneme translation tasks. The scores obtained on 17 orthographies were in line with the estimations of other studies. Interestingly, the model also provided insight into typical mistakes made by learners who only consider the phonemic rule in reading and writing.

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Inferring Morphological Complexity from Syntactic Dependency Networks: A Test
Guglielmo Inglese | Luca Brigada Villa

Research in linguistic typology has shown that languages do not fall into the neat morphological types (synthetic vs. analytic) postulated in the 19th century. Instead, analytic and synthetic must be viewed as two poles of a continuum and languages may show a mix analytic and synthetic strategies to different degrees. Unfortunately, empirical studies that offer a more fine-grained morphological classification of languages based on these parameters remain few. In this paper, we build upon previous research by Liu & Xu (2011) and investigate the possibility of inferring information on morphological complexity from syntactic dependency networks.

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A Universal Dependencies Corpora Maintenance Methodology Using Downstream Application
Ran Iwamoto | Hiroshi Kanayama | Alexandre Rademaker | Takuya Ohko

This paper investigates updates of Universal Dependencies (UD) treebanks in 23 languages and their impact on a downstream application. Numerous people are involved in updating UD’s annotation guidelines and treebanks in various languages. However, it is not easy to verify whether the updated resources maintain universality with other language resources. Thus, validity and consistency of multilingual corpora should be tested through application tasks involving syntactic structures with PoS tags, dependency labels, and universal features. We apply the syntactic parsers trained on UD treebanks from multiple versions (2.0 to 2.7) to a clause-level sentiment extractor. We then analyze the relationships between attachment scores of dependency parsers and performance in application tasks. For future UD developments, we show examples of outputs that differ depending on version.

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Improving Cross-Lingual Sentiment Analysis via Conditional Language Adversarial Nets
Hemanth Kandula | Bonan Min

Sentiment analysis has come a long way for high-resource languages due to the availability of large annotated corpora. However, it still suffers from lack of training data for low-resource languages. To tackle this problem, we propose Conditional Language Adversarial Network (CLAN), an end-to-end neural architecture for cross-lingual sentiment analysis without cross-lingual supervision. CLAN differs from prior work in that it allows the adversarial training to be conditioned on both learned features and the sentiment prediction, to increase discriminativity for learned representation in the cross-lingual setting. Experimental results demonstrate that CLAN outperforms previous methods on the multilingual multi-domain Amazon review dataset. Our source code is released at https://github.com/hemanthkandula/clan.

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Improving the Performance of UDify with Linguistic Typology Knowledge
Chinmay Choudhary

UDify is the state-of-the-art language-agnostic dependency parser which is trained on a polyglot corpus of 75 languages. This multilingual modeling enables the model to generalize over unknown/lesser-known languages, thus leading to improved performance on low-resource languages. In this work we used linguistic typology knowledge available in URIEL database, to improve the cross-lingual transferring ability of UDify even further.

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FrameNet and Typology
Michael Ellsworth | Collin Baker | Miriam R. L. Petruck

FrameNet and the Multilingual FrameNet project have produced multilingual semantic annotations of parallel texts that yield extremely fine-grained typological insights. Moreover, frame semantic annotation of a wide cross-section of languages would provide information on the limits of Frame Semantics (Fillmore 1982, Fillmore1985). Multilingual semantic annotation offers critical input for research on linguistic diversity and recurrent patterns in computational typology. Drawing on results from FrameNet annotation of parallel texts, this paper proposes frame semantic annotation as a new component to complement the state of the art in computational semantic typology.

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Family of Origin and Family of Choice: Massively Parallel Lexiconized Iterative Pretraining for Severely Low Resource Text-based Translation
Zhong Zhou | Alexander Waibel

We translate a closed text that is known in advance into a severely low resource language by leveraging massive source parallelism. In other words, given a text in 124 source languages, we translate it into a severely low resource language using only ∼1,000 lines of low resource data without any external help. Firstly, we propose a systematic method to rank and choose source languages that are close to the low resource language. We call the linguistic definition of language family Family of Origin (FAMO), and we call the empirical definition of higher-ranked languages using our metrics Family of Choice (FAMC). Secondly, we build an Iteratively Pretrained Multilingual Order-preserving Lexiconized Transformer (IPML) to train on ∼1,000 lines (∼3.5%) of low resource data. In order to translate named entities well, we build a massive lexicon table for 2,939 Bible named entities in 124 source languages, and include many that occur once and covers more than 66 severely low resource languages. Moreover, we also build a novel method of combining translations from different source languages into one. Using English as a hypothetical low resource language, we get a +23.9 BLEU increase over a multilingual baseline, and a +10.3 BLEU increase over our asymmetric baseline in the Bible dataset. We get a 42.8 BLEU score for Portuguese-English translation on the medical EMEA dataset. We also have good results for a real severely low resource Mayan language, Eastern Pokomchi.

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Measuring Prefixation and Suffixation in the Languages of the World
Harald Hammarström

It has long been recognized that suffixing is more common than prefixing in the languages of the world. More detailed statistics on this tendency are needed to sharpen proposed explanations for this tendency. The classic approach to gathering data on the prefix/suffix preference is for a human to read grammatical descriptions (948 languages), which is time-consuming and involves discretization judgments. In this paper we explore two machine-driven approaches for prefix and suffix statistics which are crude approximations, but have advantages in terms of time and replicability. The first simply searches a large collection of grammatical descriptions for occurrences of the terms ‘prefix’ and ‘suffix’ (4 287 languages). The second counts substrings from raw text data in a way indirectly reflecting prefixation and suffixation (1 030 languages, using New Testament translations). The three approaches largely agree in their measurements but there are important theoretical and practical differences. In all measurements, there is an overall preference for suffixation, albeit only slightly, at ratios ranging between 0.51 and 0.68.

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Predicting and Explaining French Grammatical Gender
Saumya Sahai | Dravyansh Sharma

Grammatical gender may be determined by semantics, orthography, phonology, or could even be arbitrary. Identifying patterns in the factors that govern noun genders can be useful for language learners, and for understanding innate linguistic sources of gender bias. Traditional manual rule-based approaches may be substituted by more accurate and scalable but harder-to-interpret computational approaches for predicting gender from typological information. In this work, we propose interpretable gender classification models for French, which obtain the best of both worlds. We present high accuracy neural approaches which are augmented by a novel global surrogate based approach for explaining predictions. We introduce ‘auxiliary attributes’ to provide tunable explanation complexity.

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Morph Call: Probing Morphosyntactic Content of Multilingual Transformers
Vladislav Mikhailov | Oleg Serikov | Ekaterina Artemova

The outstanding performance of transformer-based language models on a great variety of NLP and NLU tasks has stimulated interest in exploration of their inner workings. Recent research has been primarily focused on higher-level and complex linguistic phenomena such as syntax, semantics, world knowledge and common-sense. The majority of the studies is anglocentric, and little remains known regarding other languages, specifically their morphosyntactic properties. To this end, our work presents Morph Call, a suite of 46 probing tasks for four Indo-European languages of different morphology: Russian, French, English and German. We propose a new type of probing tasks based on detection of guided sentence perturbations. We use a combination of neuron-, layer- and representation-level introspection techniques to analyze the morphosyntactic content of four multilingual transformers, including their understudied distilled versions. Besides, we examine how fine-tuning on POS-tagging task affects the probing performance.

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SIGTYP 2021 Shared Task: Robust Spoken Language Identification
Elizabeth Salesky | Badr M. Abdullah | Sabrina Mielke | Elena Klyachko | Oleg Serikov | Edoardo Maria Ponti | Ritesh Kumar | Ryan Cotterell | Ekaterina Vylomova

While language identification is a fundamental speech and language processing task, for many languages and language families it remains a challenging task. For many low-resource and endangered languages this is in part due to resource availability: where larger datasets exist, they may be single-speaker or have different domains than desired application scenarios, demanding a need for domain and speaker-invariant language identification systems. This year’s shared task on robust spoken language identification sought to investigate just this scenario: systems were to be trained on largely single-speaker speech from one domain, but evaluated on data in other domains recorded from speakers under different recording circumstances, mimicking realistic low-resource scenarios. We see that domain and speaker mismatch proves very challenging for current methods which can perform above 95% accuracy in-domain, which domain adaptation can address to some degree, but that these conditions merit further investigation to make spoken language identification accessible in many scenarios.

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Language ID Prediction from Speech Using Self-Attentive Pooling
Roman Bedyakin | Nikolay Mikhaylovskiy

This memo describes NTR-TSU submission for SIGTYP 2021 Shared Task on predicting language IDs from speech. Spoken Language Identification (LID) is an important step in a multilingual Automated Speech Recognition (ASR) system pipeline. For many low-resource and endangered languages, only single-speaker recordings may be available, demanding a need for domain and speaker-invariant language ID systems. In this memo, we show that a convolutional neural network with a Self-Attentive Pooling layer shows promising results for the language identification task.

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A ResNet-50-Based Convolutional Neural Network Model for Language ID Identification from Speech Recordings
Giuseppe G. A. Celano

This paper describes the model built for the SIGTYP 2021 Shared Task aimed at identifying 18 typologically different languages from speech recordings. Mel-frequency cepstral coefficients derived from audio files are transformed into spectrograms, which are then fed into a ResNet-50-based CNN architecture. The final model achieved validation and test accuracies of 0.73 and 0.53, respectively.

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Anlirika: An LSTM–CNN Flow Twister for Spoken Language Identification
Andreas Scherbakov | Liam Whittle | Ritesh Kumar | Siddharth Singh | Matthew Coleman | Ekaterina Vylomova

The paper presents Anlirika’s submission to SIGTYP 2021 Shared Task on Robust Spoken Language Identification. The task aims at building a robust system that generalizes well across different domains and speakers. The training data is limited to a single domain only with predominantly single speaker per language while the validation and test data samples are derived from diverse dataset and multiple speakers. We experiment with a neural system comprising a combination of dense, convolutional, and recurrent layers that are designed to perform better generalization and obtain speaker-invariant representations. We demonstrate that the task in its constrained form (without making use of external data or augmentation the train set with samples from the validation set) is still challenging. Our best system trained on the data augmented with validation samples achieves 29.9% accuracy on the test data.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Sixth Social Media Mining for Health (#SMM4H) Workshop and Shared Task

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Proceedings of the Sixth Social Media Mining for Health (#SMM4H) Workshop and Shared Task
Arjun Magge | Ari Klein | Antonio Miranda-Escalada | Mohammed Ali Al-garadi | Ilseyar Alimova | Zulfat Miftahutdinov | Eulalia Farre-Maduell | Salvador Lima Lopez | Ivan Flores | Karen O'Connor | Davy Weissenbacher | Elena Tutubalina | Abeed Sarker | Juan M Banda | Martin Krallinger | Graciela Gonzalez-Hernandez

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Statistically Evaluating Social Media Sentiment Trends towards COVID-19 Non-Pharmaceutical Interventions with Event Studies
Jingcheng Niu | Erin Rees | Victoria Ng | Gerald Penn

In the midst of a global pandemic, understanding the public’s opinion of their government’s policy-level, non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) is a crucial component of the health-policy-making process. Prior work on CoViD-19 NPI sentiment analysis by the epidemiological community has proceeded without a method for properly attributing sentiment changes to events, an ability to distinguish the influence of various events across time, a coherent model for predicting the public’s opinion of future events of the same sort, nor even a means of conducting significance tests. We argue here that this urgently needed evaluation method does already exist. In the financial sector, event studies of the fluctuations in a publicly traded company’s stock price are commonplace for determining the effects of earnings announcements, product placements, etc. The same method is suitable for analysing temporal sentiment variation in the light of policy-level NPIs. We provide a case study of Twitter sentiment towards policy-level NPIs in Canada. Our results confirm a generally positive connection between the announcements of NPIs and Twitter sentiment, and we document a promising correlation between the results of this study and a public-health survey of popular compliance with NPIs.

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View Distillation with Unlabeled Data for Extracting Adverse Drug Effects from User-Generated Data
Payam Karisani | Jinho D. Choi | Li Xiong

We present an algorithm based on multi-layer transformers for identifying Adverse Drug Reactions (ADR) in social media data. Our model relies on the properties of the problem and the characteristics of contextual word embeddings to extract two views from documents. Then a classifier is trained on each view to label a set of unlabeled documents to be used as an initializer for a new classifier in the other view. Finally, the initialized classifier in each view is further trained using the initial training examples. We evaluated our model in the largest publicly available ADR dataset. The experiments testify that our model significantly outperforms the transformer-based models pretrained on domain-specific data.

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The ProfNER shared task on automatic recognition of occupation mentions in social media: systems, evaluation, guidelines, embeddings and corpora
Antonio Miranda-Escalada | Eulàlia Farré-Maduell | Salvador Lima-López | Luis Gascó | Vicent Briva-Iglesias | Marvin Agüero-Torales | Martin Krallinger

Detection of occupations in texts is relevant for a range of important application scenarios, like competitive intelligence, sociodemographic analysis, legal NLP or health-related occupational data mining. Despite the importance and heterogeneous data types that mention occupations, text mining efforts to recognize them have been limited. This is due to the lack of clear annotation guidelines and high-quality Gold Standard corpora. Social media data can be regarded as a relevant source of information for real-time monitoring of at-risk occupational groups in the context of pandemics like the COVID-19 one, facilitating intervention strategies for occupations in direct contact with infectious agents or affected by mental health issues. To evaluate current NLP methods and to generate resources, we have organized the ProfNER track at SMM4H 2021, providing ProfNER participants with a Gold Standard corpus of manually annotated tweets (human IAA of 0.919) following annotation guidelines available in Spanish and English, an occupation gazetteer, a machine-translated version of tweets, and FastText embeddings. Out of 35 registered teams, 11 submitted a total of 27 runs. Best-performing participants built systems based on recent NLP technologies (e.g. transformers) and achieved 0.93 F-score in Text Classification and 0.839 in Named Entity Recognition. Corpus: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4309356

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Overview of the Sixth Social Media Mining for Health Applications (#SMM4H) Shared Tasks at NAACL 2021
Arjun Magge | Ari Klein | Antonio Miranda-Escalada | Mohammed Ali Al-Garadi | Ilseyar Alimova | Zulfat Miftahutdinov | Eulalia Farre | Salvador Lima López | Ivan Flores | Karen O’Connor | Davy Weissenbacher | Elena Tutubalina | Abeed Sarker | Juan Banda | Martin Krallinger | Graciela Gonzalez-Hernandez

The global growth of social media usage over the past decade has opened research avenues for mining health related information that can ultimately be used to improve public health. The Social Media Mining for Health Applications (#SMM4H) shared tasks in its sixth iteration sought to advance the use of social media texts such as Twitter for pharmacovigilance, disease tracking and patient centered outcomes. #SMM4H 2021 hosted a total of eight tasks that included reruns of adverse drug effect extraction in English and Russian and newer tasks such as detecting medication non-adherence from Twitter and WebMD forum, detecting self-reported adverse pregnancy outcomes, detecting cases and symptoms of COVID-19, identifying occupations mentioned in Spanish by Twitter users, and detecting self-reported breast cancer diagnosis. The eight tasks included a total of 12 individual subtasks spanning three languages requiring methods for binary classification, multi-class classification, named entity recognition and entity normalization. With a total of 97 registering teams and 40 teams submitting predictions, the interest in the shared tasks grew by 70% and participation grew by 38% compared to the previous iteration.

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BERT based Transformers lead the way in Extraction of Health Information from Social Media
Sidharth Ramesh | Abhiraj Tiwari | Parthivi Choubey | Saisha Kashyap | Sahil Khose | Kumud Lakara | Nishesh Singh | Ujjwal Verma

This paper describes our submissions for the Social Media Mining for Health (SMM4H) 2021 shared tasks. We participated in 2 tasks: (1) Classification, extraction and normalization of adverse drug effect (ADE) mentions in English tweets (Task-1) and (2) Classification of COVID-19 tweets containing symptoms (Task-6). Our approach for the first task uses the language representation model RoBERTa with a binary classification head. For the second task, we use BERTweet, based on RoBERTa. Fine-tuning is performed on the pre-trained models for both tasks. The models are placed on top of a custom domain-specific pre-processing pipeline. Our system ranked first among all the submissions for subtask-1(a) with an F1-score of 61%. For subtask-1(b), our system obtained an F1-score of 50% with improvements up to +8% F1 over the median score across all submissions. The BERTweet model achieved an F1 score of 94% on SMM4H 2021 Task-6.

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KFU NLP Team at SMM4H 2021 Tasks: Cross-lingual and Cross-modal BERT-based Models for Adverse Drug Effects
Andrey Sakhovskiy | Zulfat Miftahutdinov | Elena Tutubalina

This paper describes neural models developed for the Social Media Mining for Health (SMM4H) 2021 Shared Task. We participated in two tasks on classification of tweets that mention an adverse drug effect (ADE) (Tasks 1a & 2) and two tasks on extraction of ADE concepts (Tasks 1b & 1c). For classification, we investigate the impact of joint use of BERTbased language models and drug embeddings obtained by chemical structure BERT-based encoder. The BERT-based multimodal models ranked first and second on classification of Russian (Task 2) and English tweets (Task 1a) with the F1 scores of 57% and 61%, respectively. For Task 1b and 1c, we utilized the previous year’s best solution based on the EnDR-BERT model with additional corpora. Our model achieved the best results in Task 1c, obtaining an F1 of 29%.

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Transformer-based Multi-Task Learning for Adverse Effect Mention Analysis in Tweets
George-Andrei Dima | Dumitru-Clementin Cercel | Mihai Dascalu

This paper presents our contribution to the Social Media Mining for Health Applications Shared Task 2021. We addressed all the three subtasks of Task 1: Subtask A (classification of tweets containing adverse effects), Subtask B (extraction of text spans containing adverse effects) and Subtask C (adverse effects resolution). We explored various pre-trained transformer-based language models and we focused on a multi-task training architecture. For the first subtask, we also applied adversarial augmentation techniques and we formed model ensembles in order to improve the robustness of the prediction. Our system ranked first at Subtask B with 0.51 F1 score, 0.514 precision and 0.514 recall. For Subtask A we obtained 0.44 F1 score, 0.49 precision and 0.39 recall and for Subtask C we obtained 0.16 F1 score with 0.16 precision and 0.17 recall.

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Pre-trained Transformer-based Classification and Span Detection Models for Social Media Health Applications
Yuting Guo | Yao Ge | Mohammed Ali Al-Garadi | Abeed Sarker

This paper describes our approach for six classification tasks (Tasks 1a, 3a, 3b, 4 and 5) and one span detection task (Task 1b) from the Social Media Mining for Health (SMM4H) 2021 shared tasks. We developed two separate systems for classification and span detection, both based on pre-trained Transformer-based models. In addition, we applied oversampling and classifier ensembling in the classification tasks. The results of our submissions are over the median scores in all tasks except for Task 1a. Furthermore, our model achieved first place in Task 4 and obtained a 7% higher F1-score than the median in Task 1b.

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BERT Goes Brrr: A Venture Towards the Lesser Error in Classifying Medical Self-Reporters on Twitter
Alham Fikri Aji | Made Nindyatama Nityasya | Haryo Akbarianto Wibowo | Radityo Eko Prasojo | Tirana Fatyanosa

This paper describes our team’s submission for the Social Media Mining for Health (SMM4H) 2021 shared task. We participated in three subtasks: Classifying adverse drug effect, COVID-19 self-report, and COVID-19 symptoms. Our system is based on BERT model pre-trained on the domain-specific text. In addition, we perform data cleaning and augmentation, as well as hyperparameter optimization and model ensemble to further boost the BERT performance. We achieved the first rank in both classifying adverse drug effects and COVID-19 self-report tasks.

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UACH-INAOE at SMM4H: a BERT based approach for classification of COVID-19 Twitter posts
Alberto Valdes | Jesus Lopez | Manuel Montes

This work describes the participation of the Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua - Instituto Nacional de Astrofísica, Óptica y Electrónica team at the Social Media Mining for Health Applications (SMM4H) 2021 shared task. Our team participated in task 5 and 6, both focused on the automatic classification of Twitter posts related to COVID-19. Task 5 was oriented on solving a binary classification problem, trying to identify self-reporting tweets of potential cases of COVID-19. Task 6 objective was to classify tweets containing COVID-19 symptoms. For both tasks we used models based on bidirectional encoder representations from transformers (BERT). Our objective was to determine if a model pretrained on a corpus in the domain of interest can outperform one trained on a much larger general domain corpus. Our F1 results were encouraging, 0.77 and 0.95 for task 5 and 6 respectively, having achieved the highest score among all the participants in the latter.

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System description for ProfNER - SMMH: Optimized finetuning of a pretrained transformer and word vectors
David Carreto Fidalgo | Daniel Vila-Suero | Francisco Aranda Montes | Ignacio Talavera Cepeda

This shared task system description depicts two neural network architectures submitted to the ProfNER track, among them the winning system that scored highest in the two sub-tasks 7a and 7b. We present in detail the approach, preprocessing steps and the architectures used to achieve the submitted results, and also provide a GitHub repository to reproduce the scores. The winning system is based on a transformer-based pretrained language model and solves the two sub-tasks simultaneously.

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Word Embeddings, Cosine Similarity and Deep Learning for Identification of Professions & Occupations in Health-related Social Media
Sergio Santamaría Carrasco | Roberto Cuervo Rosillo

ProfNER-ST focuses on the recognition of professions and occupations from Twitter using Spanish data. Our participation is based on a combination of word-level embeddings, including pre-trained Spanish BERT, as well as cosine similarity computed over a subset of entities that serve as input for an encoder-decoder architecture with attention mechanism. Finally, our best score achieved an F1-measure of 0.823 in the official test set.

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Classification, Extraction, and Normalization : CASIA_Unisound Team at the Social Media Mining for Health 2021 Shared Tasks
Tong Zhou | Zhucong Li | Zhen Gan | Baoli Zhang | Yubo Chen | Kun Niu | Jing Wan | Kang Liu | Jun Zhao | Yafei Shi | Weifeng Chong | Shengping Liu

This is the system description of the CASIA_Unisound team for Task 1, Task 7b, and Task 8 of the sixth Social Media Mining for Health Applications (SMM4H) shared task in 2021. Targeting on deal with two shared challenges, the colloquial text and the imbalance annotation, among those tasks, we apply a customized pre-trained language model and propose various training strategies. Experimental results show the effectiveness of our system. Moreover, we got an F1-score of 0.87 in task 8, which is the highest among all participates.

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Neural Text Classification and Stacked Heterogeneous Embeddings for Named Entity Recognition in SMM4H 2021
Usama Yaseen | Stefan Langer

This paper presents our findings from participating in the SMM4H Shared Task 2021. We addressed Named Entity Recognition (NER) and Text Classification. To address NER we explored BiLSTM-CRF with Stacked Heterogeneous embeddings and linguistic features. We investigated various machine learning algorithms (logistic regression, SVM and Neural Networks) to address text classification. Our proposed approaches can be generalized to different languages and we have shown its effectiveness for English and Spanish. Our text classification submissions have achieved competitive performance with F1-score of 0.46 and 0.90 on ADE Classification (Task 1a) and Profession Classification (Task 7a) respectively. In the case of NER, our submissions scored F1-score of 0.50 and 0.82 on ADE Span Detection (Task 1b) and Profession span detection (Task 7b) respectively.

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BERT based Adverse Drug Effect Tweet Classification
Tanay Kayastha | Pranjal Gupta | Pushpak Bhattacharyya

This paper describes models developed for the Social Media Mining for Health (SMM4H) 2021 shared tasks. Our team participated in the first subtask that classifies tweets with Adverse Drug Effect (ADE) mentions. Our best performing model utilizes BERTweet followed by a single layer of BiLSTM. The system achieves an F-score of 0.45 on the test set without the use of any auxiliary resources such as Part-of-Speech tags, dependency tags, or knowledge from medical dictionaries.

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A Joint Training Approach to Tweet Classification and Adverse Effect Extraction and Normalization for SMM4H 2021
Mohab Elkaref | Lamiece Hassan

In this work we describe our submissions to the Social Media Mining for Health (SMM4H) 2021 Shared Task. We investigated the effectiveness of a joint training approach to Task 1, specifically classification, extraction and normalization of Adverse Drug Effect (ADE) mentions in English tweets. Our approach performed well on the normalization task, achieving an above average f1 score of 24%, but less so on classification and extraction, with f1 scores of 22% and 37% respectively. Our experiments also showed that a larger dataset with more negative results led to stronger results than a smaller more balanced dataset, even when both datasets have the same positive examples. Finally we also submitted a tuned BERT model for Task 6: Classification of Covid-19 tweets containing symptoms, which achieved an above average f1 score of 96%.

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Text Augmentation Techniques in Drug Adverse Effect Detection Task
Pavel Blinov

The paper researches the problem of drug adverse effect detection in texts of social media. We describe the development of such classification system for Russian tweets. To increase the train dataset we apply a couple of augmentation techniques and analyze their effect in comparison with similar systems presented at 2021 years’ SMM4H Workshop.

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Classification of Tweets Self-reporting Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes and Potential COVID-19 Cases Using RoBERTa Transformers
Lung-Hao Lee | Man-Chen Hung | Chien-Huan Lu | Chang-Hao Chen | Po-Lei Lee | Kuo-Kai Shyu

This study describes our proposed model design for SMM4H 2021 shared tasks. We fine-tune the language model of RoBERTa transformers and their connecting classifier to complete the classification tasks of tweets for adverse pregnancy outcomes (Task 4) and potential COVID-19 cases (Task 5). The evaluation metric is F1-score of the positive class for both tasks. For Task 4, our best score of 0.93 exceeded the mean score of 0.925. For Task 5, our best of 0.75 exceeded the mean score of 0.745.

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NLP@NISER: Classification of COVID19 tweets containing symptoms
Deepak Kumar | Nalin Kumar | Subhankar Mishra

In this paper, we describe our approaches for task six of Social Media Mining for Health Applications (SMM4H) shared task in 2021. The task is to classify twitter tweets containing COVID-19 symptoms in three classes (self-reports, non-personal reports & literature/news mentions). We implemented BERT and XLNet for this text classification task. Best result was achieved by XLNet approach, which is F1 score 0.94, precision 0.9448 and recall 0.94448. This is slightly better than the average score, i.e. F1 score 0.93, precision 0.93235 and recall 0.93235.

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Identification of profession & occupation in Health-related Social Media using tweets in Spanish
Victoria Pachón | Jacinto Mata Vázquez | Juan Luís Domínguez Olmedo

In this paper we present our approach and system description on Task 7a in ProfNer-ST: Identification of profession & occupation in Health related Social Media. Our main contribution is to show the effectiveness of using BETO-Spanish BERT as a model based on transformers pretrained with a Spanish Corpus for classification tasks. In our experiments we compared several architectures based on transformers with others based on classical machine learning algorithms. With this approach, we achieved an F1-score of 0.92 in the evaluation process.

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Lasige-BioTM at ProfNER: BiLSTM-CRF and contextual Spanish embeddings for Named Entity Recognition and Tweet Binary Classification
Pedro Ruas | Vitor Andrade | Francisco Couto

The paper describes the participation of the Lasige-BioTM team at sub-tracks A and B of ProfNER, which was based on: i) a BiLSTM-CRF model that leverages contextual and classical word embeddings to recognize and classify the mentions, and ii) on a rule-based module to classify tweets. In the Evaluation phase, our model achieved a F1-score of 0.917 (0,031 more than the median) in sub-track A and a F1-score of 0.727 (0,034 less than the median) in sub-track B.

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Adversities are all you need: Classification of self-reported breast cancer posts on Twitter using Adversarial Fine-tuning
Adarsh Kumar | Ojasv Kamal | Susmita Mazumdar

In this paper, we describe our system entry for Shared Task 8 at SMM4H-2021, which is on automatic classification of self-reported breast cancer posts on Twitter. In our system, we use a transformer-based language model fine-tuning approach to automatically identify tweets in the self-reports category. Furthermore, we involve a Gradient-based Adversarial fine-tuning to improve the overall model’s robustness. Our system achieved an F1-score of 0.8625 on the Development set and 0.8501 on the Test set in Shared Task-8 of SMM4H-2021.

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UoB at ProfNER 2021: Data Augmentation for Classification Using Machine Translation
Frances Adriana Laureano De Leon | Harish Tayyar Madabushi | Mark Lee

This paper describes the participation of the UoB-NLP team in the ProfNER-ST shared subtask 7a. The task was aimed at detecting the mention of professions in social media text. Our team experimented with two methods of improving the performance of pre-trained models: Specifically, we experimented with data augmentation through translation and the merging of multiple language inputs to meet the objective of the task. While the best performing model on the test data consisted of mBERT fine-tuned on augmented data using back-translation, the improvement is minor possibly because multi-lingual pre-trained models such as mBERT already have access to the kind of information provided through back-translation and bilingual data.

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IIITN NLP at SMM4H 2021 Tasks: Transformer Models for Classification on Health-Related Imbalanced Twitter Datasets
Varad Pimpalkhute | Prajwal Nakhate | Tausif Diwan

With increasing users sharing health-related information on social media, there has been a rise in using social media for health monitoring and surveillance. In this paper, we present a system that addresses classic health-related binary classification problems presented in Tasks 1a, 4, and 8 of the 6th edition of Social Media Mining for Health Applications (SMM4H) shared tasks. We developed a system based on RoBERTa (for Task 1a & 4) and BioBERT (for Task 8). Furthermore, we address the challenge of the imbalanced dataset and propose techniques such as undersampling, oversampling, and data augmentation to overcome the imbalanced nature of a given health-related dataset.

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OCHADAI at SMM4H-2021 Task 5: Classifying self-reporting tweets on potential cases of COVID-19 by ensembling pre-trained language models
Ying Luo | Lis Pereira | Kobayashi Ichiro

Since the outbreak of coronavirus at the end of 2019, there have been numerous studies on coro- navirus in the NLP arena. Meanwhile, Twitter has been a valuable source of news and a pub- lic medium for the conveyance of information and personal expression. This paper describes the system developed by the Ochadai team for the Social Media Mining for Health Appli- cations (SMM4H) 2021 Task 5, which aims to automatically distinguish English tweets that self-report potential cases of COVID-19 from those that do not. We proposed a model ensemble that leverages pre-trained represen- tations from COVID-Twitter-BERT (Müller et al., 2020), RoBERTa (Liu et al., 2019), and Twitter-RoBERTa (Glazkova et al., 2021). Our model obtained F1-scores of 76% on the test set in the evaluation phase, and 77.5% in the post-evaluation phase.

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PAII-NLP at SMM4H 2021: Joint Extraction and Normalization of Adverse Drug Effect Mentions in Tweets
Zongcheng Ji | Tian Xia | Mei Han

This paper describes our system developed for the subtask 1c of the sixth Social Media Mining for Health Applications (SMM4H) shared task in 2021. The aim of the subtask is to recognize the adverse drug effect (ADE) mentions from tweets and normalize the identified mentions to their mapping MedDRA preferred term IDs. Our system is based on a neural transition-based joint model, which is to perform recognition and normalization simultaneously. Our final two submissions outperform the average F1 score by 1-2%.

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Assessing multiple word embeddings for named entity recognition of professions and occupations in health-related social media
Vasile Pais | Maria Mitrofan

This paper presents our contribution to the ProfNER shared task. Our work focused on evaluating different pre-trained word embedding representations suitable for the task. We further explored combinations of embeddings in order to improve the overall results.

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Fine-tuning Transformers for Identifying Self-Reporting Potential Cases and Symptoms of COVID-19 in Tweets
Max Fleming | Priyanka Dondeti | Caitlin Dreisbach | Adam Poliak

We describe our straight-forward approach for Tasks 5 and 6 of 2021 Social Media Min- ing for Health Applications (SMM4H) shared tasks. Our system is based on fine-tuning Dis- tillBERT on each task, as well as first fine- tuning the model on the other task. In this paper, we additionally explore how much fine- tuning is necessary for accurately classifying tweets as containing self-reported COVID-19 symptoms (Task 5) or whether a tweet related to COVID-19 is self-reporting, non-personal reporting, or a literature/news mention of the virus (Task 6).

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Classification of COVID19 tweets using Machine Learning Approaches
Anupam Mondal | Sainik Mahata | Monalisa Dey | Dipankar Das

The reported work is a description of our participation in the “Classification of COVID19 tweets containing symptoms” shared task, organized by the “Social Media Mining for Health Applications (SMM4H)” workshop. The literature describes two machine learning approaches that were used to build a three class classification system, that categorizes tweets related to COVID19, into three classes, viz., self-reports, non-personal reports, and literature/news mentions. The steps for pre-processing tweets, feature extraction, and the development of the machine learning models, are described extensively in the documentation. Both the developed learning models, when evaluated by the organizers, garnered F1 scores of 0.93 and 0.92 respectively.

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Fine-tuning BERT to classify COVID19 tweets containing symptoms
Rajarshi Roychoudhury | Sudip Naskar

Twitter is a valuable source of patient-generated data that has been used in various population health studies. The first step in many of these studies is to identify and capture Twitter messages (tweets) containing medication mentions. Identifying personal mentions of COVID19 symptoms requires distinguishing personal mentions from other mentions such as symptoms reported by others and references to news articles or other sources. In this article, we describe our submission to Task 6 of the Social Media Mining for Health Applications (SMM4H) Shared Task 2021. This task challenged participants to classify tweets where the target classes are:(1) self-reports,(2) non-personal reports, and (3) literature/news mentions. Our system used a handcrafted preprocessing and word embeddings from BERT encoder model. We achieved an F1 score of 93%

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Identifying professions & occupations in Health-related Social Media using Natural Language Processing
Alberto Mesa Murgado | Ana Parras Portillo | Pilar López Úbeda | Maite Martin | Alfonso Ureña-López

This paper describes the entry of the research group SINAI at SMM4H’s ProfNER task on the identification of professions and occupations in social media related with health. Specifically we have participated in Task 7a: Tweet Binary Classification to determine whether a tweet contains mentions of occupations or not, as well as in Task 7b: NER Offset Detection and Classification aimed at predicting occupations mentions and classify them discriminating by professions and working statuses.

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Approaching SMM4H with auto-regressive language models and back-translation
Joseph Cornelius | Tilia Ellendorff | Fabio Rinaldi

We describe our submissions to the 6th edition of the Social Media Mining for Health Applications (SMM4H) shared task. Our team (OGNLP) participated in the sub-task: Classification of tweets self-reporting potential cases of COVID-19 (Task 5). For our submissions, we employed systems based on auto-regressive transformer models (XLNet) and back-translation for balancing the dataset.

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ULD-NUIG at Social Media Mining for Health Applications (#SMM4H) Shared Task 2021
Atul Kr. Ojha | Priya Rani | Koustava Goswami | Bharathi Raja Chakravarthi | John P. McCrae

Social media platforms such as Twitter and Facebook have been utilised for various research studies, from the cohort-level discussion to community-driven approaches to address the challenges in utilizing social media data for health, clinical and biomedical information. Detection of medical jargon’s, named entity recognition, multi-word expression becomes the primary, fundamental steps in solving those challenges. In this paper, we enumerate the ULD-NUIG team’s system, designed as part of Social Media Mining for Health Applications (#SMM4H) Shared Task 2021. The team conducted a series of experiments to explore the challenges of task 6 and task 5. The submitted systems achieve F-1 0.84 and 0.53 score for task 6 and 5 respectively.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Ninth International Workshop on Natural Language Processing for Social Media

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Proceedings of the Ninth International Workshop on Natural Language Processing for Social Media
Lun-Wei Ku | Cheng-Te Li

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Analysis of Nuanced Stances and Sentiment Towards Entities of US Politicians through the Lens of Moral Foundation Theory
Shamik Roy | Dan Goldwasser

The Moral Foundation Theory suggests five moral foundations that can capture the view of a user on a particular issue. It is widely used to identify sentence-level sentiment. In this paper, we study the Moral Foundation Theory in tweets by US politicians on two politically divisive issues - Gun Control and Immigration. We define the nuanced stance of politicians on these two topics by the grades given by related organizations to the politicians. First, we identify moral foundations in tweets from a huge corpus using deep relational learning. Then, qualitative and quantitative evaluations using the corpus show that there is a strong correlation between the moral foundation usage and the politicians’ nuanced stance on a particular topic. We also found substantial differences in moral foundation usage by different political parties when they address different entities. All of these results indicate the need for more intense research in this area.

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Content-based Stance Classification of Tweets about the 2020 Italian Constitutional Referendum
Marco Di Giovanni | Marco Brambilla

On September 2020 a constitutional referendum was held in Italy. In this work we collect a dataset of 1.2M tweets related to this event, with particular interest to the textual content shared, and we design a hashtag-based semi-automatic approach to label them as Supporters or Against the referendum. We use the labelled dataset to train a classifier based on transformers, unsupervisedly pre-trained on Italian corpora. Our model generalizes well on tweets that cannot be labeled by the hashtag-based approach. We check that no length-, lexicon- and sentiment-biases are present to affect the performance of the classifier. Finally, we discuss the discrepancy between the magnitudes of tweets expressing a specific stance, obtained using both the hashtag-based approach and our trained classifier, and the real outcome of the referendum: the referendum was approved by 70% of the voters, while the number of tweets against the referendum is four times greater than the number of tweets supporting it. We conclude that the Italian referendum was an example of event where the minority was very loud on social media, highly influencing the perception of the event. Analyzing only the activity on social media is dangerous and can lead to extremely wrong forecasts.

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A Case Study of In-House Competition for Ranking Constructive Comments in a News Service
Hayato Kobayashi | Hiroaki Taguchi | Yoshimune Tabuchi | Chahine Koleejan | Ken Kobayashi | Soichiro Fujita | Kazuma Murao | Takeshi Masuyama | Taichi Yatsuka | Manabu Okumura | Satoshi Sekine

Ranking the user comments posted on a news article is important for online news services because comment visibility directly affects the user experience. Research on ranking comments with different metrics to measure the comment quality has shown “constructiveness” used in argument analysis is promising from a practical standpoint. In this paper, we report a case study in which this constructiveness is examined in the real world. Specifically, we examine an in-house competition to improve the performance of ranking constructive comments and demonstrate the effectiveness of the best obtained model for a commercial service.

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Quantifying the Effects of COVID-19 on Restaurant Reviews
Ivy Cao | Zizhou Liu | Giannis Karamanolakis | Daniel Hsu | Luis Gravano

The COVID-19 pandemic has implications beyond physical health, affecting society and economies. Government efforts to slow down the spread of the virus have had a severe impact on many businesses, including restaurants. Mandatory policies such as restaurant closures, bans on social gatherings, and social distancing restrictions have affected restaurant operations as well as customer preferences (e.g., prompting a demand of stricter hygiene standards). As of now, however, it is not clear how and to what extent the pandemic has affected restaurant reviews, an analysis of which could potentially inform policies for addressing this ongoing situation. In this work, we present our efforts to understand the effects of COVID-19 on restaurant reviews, with a focus on Yelp reviews produced during the pandemic for New York City and Los Angeles County restaurants. Overall, we make the following contributions. First, we assemble a dataset of 600 reviews with manual annotations of fine-grained COVID-19 aspects related to restaurants (e.g., hygiene practices, service changes, sympathy and support for local businesses). Second, we address COVID-19 aspect detection using supervised classifiers, weakly-supervised approaches based on keywords, and unsupervised topic modeling approaches, and experimentally show that classifiers based on pre-trained BERT representations achieve the best performance (F1=0.79). Third, we analyze the number and evolution of COVID-related aspects over time and show that the resulting time series have substantial correlation (Spearman’s 𝜌=0.84) with critical statistics related to the COVID-19 pandemic, including the number of new COVID-19 cases. To our knowledge, this is the first work analyzing the effects of COVID-19 on Yelp restaurant reviews and could potentially inform policies by public health departments, for example, to cover resource utilization.

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Assessing Cognitive Linguistic Influences in the Assignment of Blame
Karen Zhou | Ana Smith | Lillian Lee

Lab studies in cognition and the psychology of morality have proposed some thematic and linguistic factors that influence moral reasoning. This paper assesses how well the findings of these studies generalize to a large corpus of over 22,000 descriptions of fraught situations posted to a dedicated forum. At this social-media site, users judge whether or not an author is in the wrong with respect to the event that the author described. We find that, consistent with lab studies, there are statistically significant differences in uses of first-person passive voice, as well as first-person agents and patients, between descriptions of situations that receive different blame judgments. These features also aid performance in the task of predicting the eventual collective verdicts.

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Evaluating Deception Detection Model Robustness To Linguistic Variation
Maria Glenski | Ellyn Ayton | Robin Cosbey | Dustin Arendt | Svitlana Volkova

With the increasing use of machine-learning driven algorithmic judgements, it is critical to develop models that are robust to evolving or manipulated inputs. We propose an extensive analysis of model robustness against linguistic variation in the setting of deceptive news detection, an important task in the context of misinformation spread online. We consider two prediction tasks and compare three state-of-the-art embeddings to highlight consistent trends in model performance, high confidence misclassifications, and high impact failures. By measuring the effectiveness of adversarial defense strategies and evaluating model susceptibility to adversarial attacks using character- and word-perturbed text, we find that character or mixed ensemble models are the most effective defenses and that character perturbation-based attack tactics are more successful.

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Reconsidering Annotator Disagreement about Racist Language: Noise or Signal?
Savannah Larimore | Ian Kennedy | Breon Haskett | Alina Arseniev-Koehler

An abundance of methodological work aims to detect hateful and racist language in text. However, these tools are hampered by problems like low annotator agreement and remain largely disconnected from theoretical work on race and racism in the social sciences. Using annotations of 5188 tweets from 291 annotators, we investigate how annotator perceptions of racism in tweets vary by annotator racial identity and two text features of the tweets: relevant keywords and latent topics identified through structural topic modeling. We provide a descriptive summary of our data and estimate a series of generalized linear models to determine if annotator racial identity and our 12 latent topics, alone or in combination, explain the way racial sentiment was annotated, net of relevant annotator characteristics and tweet features. Our results show that White and non-White annotators exhibit significant differences in ratings when reading tweets with high prevalence of particular, racially-charged topics. We conclude by suggesting how future methodological work can draw on our results and further incorporate social science theory into analyses.

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Understanding and Interpreting the Impact of User Context in Hate Speech Detection
Edoardo Mosca | Maximilian Wich | Georg Groh

As hate speech spreads on social media and online communities, research continues to work on its automatic detection. Recently, recognition performance has been increasing thanks to advances in deep learning and the integration of user features. This work investigates the effects that such features can have on a detection model. Unlike previous research, we show that simple performance comparison does not expose the full impact of including contextual- and user information. By leveraging explainability techniques, we show (1) that user features play a role in the model’s decision and (2) how they affect the feature space learned by the model. Besides revealing that—and also illustrating why—user features are the reason for performance gains, we show how such techniques can be combined to better understand the model and to detect unintended bias.

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Self-Contextualized Attention for Abusive Language Identification
Horacio Jarquín-Vásquez | Hugo Jair Escalante | Manuel Montes

The use of attention mechanisms in deep learning approaches has become popular in natural language processing due to its outstanding performance. The use of these mechanisms allows one managing the importance of the elements of a sequence in accordance to their context, however, this importance has been observed independently between the pairs of elements of a sequence (self-attention) and between the application domain of a sequence (contextual attention), leading to the loss of relevant information and limiting the representation of the sequences. To tackle these particular issues we propose the self-contextualized attention mechanism, which trades off the previous limitations, by considering the internal and contextual relationships between the elements of a sequence. The proposed mechanism was evaluated in four standard collections for the abusive language identification task achieving encouraging results. It outperformed the current attention mechanisms and showed a competitive performance with respect to state-of-the-art approaches.

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Unsupervised Domain Adaptation in Cross-corpora Abusive Language Detection
Tulika Bose | Irina Illina | Dominique Fohr

The state-of-the-art abusive language detection models report great in-corpus performance, but underperform when evaluated on abusive comments that differ from the training scenario. As human annotation involves substantial time and effort, models that can adapt to newly collected comments can prove to be useful. In this paper, we investigate the effectiveness of several Unsupervised Domain Adaptation (UDA) approaches for the task of cross-corpora abusive language detection. In comparison, we adapt a variant of the BERT model, trained on large-scale abusive comments, using Masked Language Model (MLM) fine-tuning. Our evaluation shows that the UDA approaches result in sub-optimal performance, while the MLM fine-tuning does better in the cross-corpora setting. Detailed analysis reveals the limitations of the UDA approaches and emphasizes the need to build efficient adaptation methods for this task.

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Using Noisy Self-Reports to Predict Twitter User Demographics
Zach Wood-Doughty | Paiheng Xu | Xiao Liu | Mark Dredze

Computational social science studies often contextualize content analysis within standard demographics. Since demographics are unavailable on many social media platforms (e.g. Twitter), numerous studies have inferred demographics automatically. Despite many studies presenting proof-of-concept inference of race and ethnicity, training of practical systems remains elusive since there are few annotated datasets. Existing datasets are small, inaccurate, or fail to cover the four most common racial and ethnic groups in the United States. We present a method to identify self-reports of race and ethnicity from Twitter profile descriptions. Despite the noise of automated supervision, our self-report datasets enable improvements in classification performance on gold standard self-report survey data. The result is a reproducible method for creating large-scale training resources for race and ethnicity.

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PANDORA Talks: Personality and Demographics on Reddit
Matej Gjurković | Mladen Karan | Iva Vukojević | Mihaela Bošnjak | Jan Snajder

Personality and demographics are important variables in social sciences and computational sociolinguistics. However, datasets with both personality and demographic labels are scarce. To address this, we present PANDORA, the first dataset of Reddit comments of 10k users partially labeled with three personality models and demographics (age, gender, and location), including 1.6k users labeled with the well-established Big 5 personality model. We showcase the usefulness of this dataset on three experiments, where we leverage the more readily available data from other personality models to predict the Big 5 traits, analyze gender classification biases arising from psycho-demographic variables, and carry out a confirmatory and exploratory analysis based on psychological theories. Finally, we present benchmark prediction models for all personality and demographic variables.

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Room to Grow: Understanding Personal Characteristics Behind Self Improvement Using Social Media
MeiXing Dong | Xueming Xu | Yiwei Zhang | Ian Stewart | Rada Mihalcea

Many people aim for change, but not everyone succeeds. While there are a number of social psychology theories that propose motivation-related characteristics of those who persist with change, few computational studies have explored the motivational stage of personal change. In this paper, we investigate a new dataset consisting of the writings of people who manifest intention to change, some of whom persist while others do not. Using a variety of linguistic analysis techniques, we first examine the writing patterns that distinguish the two groups of people. Persistent people tend to reference more topics related to long-term self-improvement and use a more complicated writing style. Drawing on these consistent differences, we build a classifier that can reliably identify the people more likely to persist, based on their language. Our experiments provide new insights into the motivation-related behavior of people who persist with their intention to change.

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Mitigating Temporal-Drift: A Simple Approach to Keep NER Models Crisp
Shuguang Chen | Leonardo Neves | Thamar Solorio

Performance of neural models for named entity recognition degrades over time, becoming stale. This degradation is due to temporal drift, the change in our target variables’ statistical properties over time. This issue is especially problematic for social media data, where topics change rapidly. In order to mitigate the problem, data annotation and retraining of models is common. Despite its usefulness, this process is expensive and time-consuming, which motivates new research on efficient model updating. In this paper, we propose an intuitive approach to measure the potential trendiness of tweets and use this metric to select the most informative instances to use for training. We conduct experiments on three state-of-the-art models on the Temporal Twitter Dataset. Our approach shows larger increases in prediction accuracy with less training data than the alternatives, making it an attractive, practical solution.

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Jujeop: Korean Puns for K-pop Stars on Social Media
Soyoung Oh | Jisu Kim | Seungpeel Lee | Eunil Park

Jujeop is a type of pun and a unique way for fans to express their love for the K-pop stars they follow using Korean. One of the unique characteristics of Jujeop is its use of exaggerated expressions to compliment K-pop stars, which contain or lead to humor. Based on this characteristic, Jujeop can be separated into four distinct types, with their own lexical collocations: (1) Fragmenting words to create a twist, (2) Homophones and homographs, (3) Repetition, and (4) Nonsense. Thus, the current study first defines the concept of Jujeop in Korean, manually labels 8.6K comments and annotates the comments to one of the four Jujeop types. With the given annotated corpus, this study presents distinctive characteristics of Jujeop comments compared to the other comments by classification task. Moreover, with the clustering approach, we proposed a structural dependency within each Jujeop type. We have made our dataset publicly available for future research of Jujeop expressions.

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Identifying Distributional Perspectives from Colingual Groups
Yufei Tian | Tuhin Chakrabarty | Fred Morstatter | Nanyun Peng

Discrepancies exist among different cultures or languages. A lack of mutual understanding among different colingual groups about the perspectives on specific values or events may lead to uninformed decisions or biased opinions. Thus, automatically understanding the group perspectives can provide essential back-ground for many natural language processing tasks. In this paper, we study colingual groups and use language corpora as a proxy to identify their distributional perspectives. We present a novel computational approach to learn shared understandings, and benchmark our method by building culturally-aware models for the English, Chinese, and Japanese languages. Ona held out set of diverse topics, including marriage, corruption, democracy, etc., our model achieves high correlation with human judgements regarding intra-group values and inter-group differences
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bib (full) Proceedings of Second International Combined Workshop on Spatial Language Understanding and Grounded Communication for Robotics

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Proceedings of Second International Combined Workshop on Spatial Language Understanding and Grounded Communication for Robotics
Malihe Alikhani | Valts Blukis | Parisa Kordjamshidi | Aishwarya Padmakumar | Hao Tan

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Symbol Grounding and Task Learning from Imperfect Corrections
Mattias Appelgren | Alex Lascarides

This paper describes a method for learning from a teacher’s potentially unreliable corrective feedback in an interactive task learning setting. The graphical model uses discourse coherence to jointly learn symbol grounding, domain concepts and valid plans. Our experiments show that the agent learns its domain-level task in spite of the teacher’s mistakes.

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Learning to Read Maps: Understanding Natural Language Instructions from Unseen Maps
Miltiadis Marios Katsakioris | Ioannis Konstas | Pierre Yves Mignotte | Helen Hastie

Robust situated dialog requires the ability to process instructions based on spatial information, which may or may not be available. We propose a model, based on LXMERT, that can extract spatial information from text instructions and attend to landmarks on OpenStreetMap (OSM) referred to in a natural language instruction. Whilst, OSM is a valuable resource, as with any open-sourced data, there is noise and variation in the names referred to on the map, as well as, variation in natural language instructions, hence the need for data-driven methods over rule-based systems. This paper demonstrates that the gold GPS location can be accurately predicted from the natural language instruction and metadata with 72% accuracy for previously seen maps and 64% for unseen maps.

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Visually Grounded Follow-up Questions: a Dataset of Spatial Questions Which Require Dialogue History
Tianai Dong | Alberto Testoni | Luciana Benotti | Raffaella Bernardi

In this paper, we define and evaluate a methodology for extracting history-dependent spatial questions from visual dialogues. We say that a question is history-dependent if it requires (parts of) its dialogue history to be interpreted. We argue that some kinds of visual questions define a context upon which a follow-up spatial question relies. We call the question that restricts the context: trigger, and we call the spatial question that requires the trigger question to be answered: zoomer. We automatically extract different trigger and zoomer pairs based on the visual property that the questions rely on (e.g. color, number). We manually annotate the automatically extracted trigger and zoomer pairs to verify which zoomers require their trigger. We implement a simple baseline architecture based on a SOTA multimodal encoder. Our results reveal that there is much room for improvement for answering history-dependent questions.

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Modeling Semantics and Pragmatics of Spatial Prepositions via Hierarchical Common-Sense Primitives
Georgiy Platonov | Yifei Yang | Haoyu Wu | Jonathan Waxman | Marcus Hill | Lenhart Schubert

Understanding spatial expressions and using them appropriately is necessary for seamless and natural human-machine interaction. However, capturing the semantics and appropriate usage of spatial prepositions is notoriously difficult, because of their vagueness and polysemy. Although modern data-driven approaches are good at capturing statistical regularities in the usage, they usually require substantial sample sizes, often do not generalize well to unseen instances and, most importantly, their structure is essentially opaque to analysis, which makes diagnosing problems and understanding their reasoning process difficult. In this work, we discuss our attempt at modeling spatial senses of prepositions in English using a combination of rule-based and statistical learning approaches. Each preposition model is implemented as a tree where each node computes certain intuitive relations associated with the preposition, with the root computing the final value of the prepositional relation itself. The models operate on a set of artificial 3D “room world” environments, designed in Blender, taking the scene itself as an input. We also discuss our annotation framework used to collect human judgments employed in the model training. Both our factored models and black-box baseline models perform quite well, but the factored models will enable reasoned explanations of spatial relation judgements.

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Towards Navigation by Reasoning over Spatial Configurations
Yue Zhang | Quan Guo | Parisa Kordjamshidi

We deal with the navigation problem where the agent follows natural language instructions while observing the environment. Focusing on language understanding, we show the importance of spatial semantics in grounding navigation instructions into visual perceptions. We propose a neural agent that uses the elements of spatial configurations and investigate their influence on the navigation agent’s reasoning ability. Moreover, we model the sequential execution order and align visual objects with spatial configurations in the instruction. Our neural agent improves strong baselines on the seen environments and shows competitive performance on the unseen environments. Additionally, the experimental results demonstrate that explicit modeling of spatial semantic elements in the instructions can improve the grounding and spatial reasoning of the model.

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Error-Aware Interactive Semantic Parsing of OpenStreetMap
Michael Staniek | Stefan Riezler

In semantic parsing of geographical queries against real-world databases such as OpenStreetMap (OSM), unique correct answers do not necessarily exist. Instead, the truth might be lying in the eye of the user, who needs to enter an interactive setup where ambiguities can be resolved and parsing mistakes can be corrected. Our work presents an approach to interactive semantic parsing where an explicit error detection is performed, and a clarification question is generated that pinpoints the suspected source of ambiguity or error and communicates it to the human user. Our experimental results show that a combination of entropy-based uncertainty detection and beam search, together with multi-source training on clarification question, initial parse, and user answer, results in improvements of 1.2% F1 score on a parser that already performs at 90.26% on the NLMaps dataset for OSM semantic parsing.

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Plan Explanations that Exploit a Cognitive Spatial Model
Raj Korpan | Susan L. Epstein

Ideally, people who navigate together in a complex indoor space share a mental model that facilitates explanation. This paper reports on a robot control system whose cognitive world model is based on spatial affordances that generalize over its perceptual data. Given a target, the control system formulates multiple plans, each with a model-relevant metric, and selects among them. As a result, it can provide readily understandable natural language about the robot’s intentions and confidence, and generate diverse, contrastive explanations that reference the acquired spatial model. Empirical results in large, complex environments demonstrate the robot’s ability to provide human-friendly explanations in natural language.

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Interactive Reinforcement Learning for Table Balancing Robot
Haein Jeon | Yewon Kim | Bo-Yeong Kang

With the development of robotics, the use of robots in daily life is increasing, which has led to the need for anyone to easily train robots to improve robot use. Interactive reinforcement learning(IARL) is a method for robot training based on human–robot interaction; prior studies on IARL provide only limited types of feedback or require appropriately designed shaping rewards, which is known to be difficult and time-consuming. Therefore, in this study, we propose interactive deep reinforcement learning models based on voice feedback. In the proposed system, a robot learns the task of cooperative table balancing through deep Q-network using voice feedback provided by humans in real-time, with automatic speech recognition(ASR) and sentiment analysis to understand human voice feedback. As a result, an optimal policy convergence rate of up to 96% was realized, and performance was improved in all voice feedback-based models

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Multi-Level Gazetteer-Free Geocoding
Sayali Kulkarni | Shailee Jain | Mohammad Javad Hosseini | Jason Baldridge | Eugene Ie | Li Zhang

We present a multi-level geocoding model (MLG) that learns to associate texts to geographic coordinates. The Earth’s surface is represented using space-filling curves that decompose the sphere into a hierarchical grid. MLG balances classification granularity and accuracy by combining losses across multiple levels and jointly predicting cells at different levels simultaneously. It obtains large gains without any gazetteer metadata, demonstrating that it can effectively learn the connection between text spans and coordinates—and thus makes it a gazetteer-free geocoder. Furthermore, MLG obtains state-of-the-art results for toponym resolution on three English datasets without any dataset-specific tuning.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 5th Workshop on Structured Prediction for NLP (SPNLP 2021)

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Proceedings of the 5th Workshop on Structured Prediction for NLP (SPNLP 2021)
Zornitsa Kozareva | Sujith Ravi | Andreas Vlachos | Priyanka Agrawal | André Martins

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RewardsOfSum: Exploring Reinforcement Learning Rewards for Summarisation
Jacob Parnell | Inigo Jauregi Unanue | Massimo Piccardi

To date, most abstractive summarisation models have relied on variants of the negative log-likelihood (NLL) as their training objective. In some cases, reinforcement learning has been added to train the models with an objective that is closer to their evaluation measures (e.g. ROUGE). However, the reward function to be used within the reinforcement learning approach can play a key role for performance and is still partially unexplored. For this reason, in this paper, we propose two reward functions for the task of abstractive summarisation: the first function, referred to as RwB-Hinge, dynamically selects the samples for the gradient update. The second function, nicknamed RISK, leverages a small pool of strong candidates to inform the reward. In the experiments, we probe the proposed approach by fine-tuning an NLL pre-trained model over nine summarisation datasets of diverse size and nature. The experimental results show a consistent improvement over the negative log-likelihood baselines.

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SmBoP: Semi-autoregressive Bottom-up Semantic Parsing
Ohad Rubin | Jonathan Berant

The de-facto standard decoding method for semantic parsing in recent years has been to autoregressively decode the abstract syntax tree of the target program using a top-down depth-first traversal. In this work, we propose an alternative approach: a Semi-autoregressive Bottom-up Parser (SmBoP) that constructs at decoding step t the top-K sub-trees of height ≤ t. Our parser enjoys several benefits compared to top-down autoregressive parsing. From an efficiency perspective, bottom-up parsing allows to decode all sub-trees of a certain height in parallel, leading to logarithmic runtime complexity rather than linear. From a modeling perspective, a bottom-up parser learns representations for meaningful semantic sub-programs at each step, rather than for semantically-vacuous partial trees. We apply SmBoP on Spider, a challenging zero-shot semantic parsing benchmark, and show that SmBoP leads to a 2.2x speed-up in decoding time and a ~5x speed-up in training time, compared to a semantic parser that uses autoregressive decoding. SmBoP obtains 71.1 denotation accuracy on Spider, establishing a new state-of-the-art, and 69.5 exact match, comparable to the 69.6 exact match of the autoregressive RAT-SQL+Grappa.

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Learning compositional structures for semantic graph parsing
Jonas Groschwitz | Meaghan Fowlie | Alexander Koller

AM dependency parsing is a method for neural semantic graph parsing that exploits the principle of compositionality. While AM dependency parsers have been shown to be fast and accurate across several graphbanks, they require explicit annotations of the compositional tree structures for training. In the past, these were obtained using complex graphbank-specific heuristics written by experts. Here we show how they can instead be trained directly on the graphs with a neural latent-variable model, drastically reducing the amount and complexity of manual heuristics. We demonstrate that our model picks up on several linguistic phenomena on its own and achieves comparable accuracy to supervised training, greatly facilitating the use of AM dependency parsing for new sembanks.

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Offline Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback in Real-World Sequence-to-Sequence Tasks
Julia Kreutzer | Stefan Riezler | Carolin Lawrence

Large volumes of interaction logs can be collected from NLP systems that are deployed in the real world. How can this wealth of information be leveraged? Using such interaction logs in an offline reinforcement learning (RL) setting is a promising approach. However, due to the nature of NLP tasks and the constraints of production systems, a series of challenges arise. We present a concise overview of these challenges and discuss possible solutions.

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Mode recovery in neural autoregressive sequence modeling
Ilia Kulikov | Sean Welleck | Kyunghyun Cho

Despite its wide use, recent studies have revealed unexpected and undesirable properties of neural autoregressive sequence models trained with maximum likelihood, such as an unreasonably high affinity to short sequences after training and to infinitely long sequences at decoding time. We propose to study these phenomena by investigating how the modes, or local maxima, of a distribution are maintained throughout the full learning chain of the ground-truth, empirical, learned and decoding-induced distributions, via the newly proposed mode recovery cost. We design a tractable testbed where we build three types of ground-truth distributions: (1) an LSTM based structured distribution, (2) an unstructured distribution where probability of a sequence does not depend on its content, and (3) a product of these two which we call a semi-structured distribution. Our study reveals both expected and unexpected findings. First, starting with data collection, mode recovery cost strongly relies on the ground-truth distribution and is most costly with the semi-structured distribution. Second, after learning, mode recovery cost from the ground-truth distribution may increase or decrease compared to data collection, with the largest cost degradation occurring with the semi-structured ground-truth distribution. Finally, the ability of the decoding-induced distribution to recover modes from the learned distribution is highly impacted by the choices made earlier in the learning chain. We conclude that future research must consider the entire learning chain in order to fully understand the potentials and perils and to further improve neural autoregressive sequence models.

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Using Hierarchical Class Structure to Improve Fine-Grained Claim Classification
Erenay Dayanik | Andre Blessing | Nico Blokker | Sebastian Haunss | Jonas Kuhn | Gabriella Lapesa | Sebastian Padó

The analysis of public debates crucially requires the classification of political demands according to hierarchical claim ontologies (e.g. for immigration, a supercategory “Controlling Migration” might have subcategories “Asylum limit” or “Border installations”). A major challenge for automatic claim classification is the large number and low frequency of such subclasses. We address it by jointly predicting pairs of matching super- and subcategories. We operationalize this idea by (a) encoding soft constraints in the claim classifier and (b) imposing hard constraints via Integer Linear Programming. Our experiments with different claim classifiers on a German immigration newspaper corpus show consistent performance increases for joint prediction, in particular for infrequent categories and discuss the complementarity of the two approaches.

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A Globally Normalized Neural Model for Semantic Parsing
Chenyang Huang | Wei Yang | Yanshuai Cao | Osmar Zaïane | Lili Mou

In this paper, we propose a globally normalized model for context-free grammar (CFG)-based semantic parsing. Instead of predicting a probability, our model predicts a real-valued score at each step and does not suffer from the label bias problem. Experiments show that our approach outperforms locally normalized models on small datasets, but it does not yield improvement on a large dataset.

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Comparing Span Extraction Methods for Semantic Role Labeling
Zhisong Zhang | Emma Strubell | Eduard Hovy

In this work, we empirically compare span extraction methods for the task of semantic role labeling (SRL). While recent progress incorporating pre-trained contextualized representations into neural encoders has greatly improved SRL F1 performance on popular benchmarks, the potential costs and benefits of structured decoding in these models have become less clear. With extensive experiments on PropBank SRL datasets, we find that more structured decoding methods outperform BIO-tagging when using static (word type) embeddings across all experimental settings. However, when used in conjunction with pre-trained contextualized word representations, the benefits are diminished. We also experiment in cross-genre and cross-lingual settings and find similar trends. We further perform speed comparisons and provide analysis on the accuracy-efficiency trade-offs among different decoding methods.
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bib (full) Proceedings of *SEM 2021: The Tenth Joint Conference on Lexical and Computational Semantics

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Proceedings of *SEM 2021: The Tenth Joint Conference on Lexical and Computational Semantics
Lun-Wei Ku | Vivi Nastase | Ivan Vulić

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Did the Cat Drink the Coffee? Challenging Transformers with Generalized Event Knowledge
Paolo Pedinotti | Giulia Rambelli | Emmanuele Chersoni | Enrico Santus | Alessandro Lenci | Philippe Blache

Prior research has explored the ability of computational models to predict a word semantic fit with a given predicate. While much work has been devoted to modeling the typicality relation between verbs and arguments in isolation, in this paper we take a broader perspective by assessing whether and to what extent computational approaches have access to the information about the typicality of entire events and situations described in language (Generalized Event Knowledge). Given the recent success of Transformers Language Models (TLMs), we decided to test them on a benchmark for the dynamic estimation of thematic fit. The evaluation of these models was performed in comparison with SDM, a framework specifically designed to integrate events in sentence meaning representations, and we conducted a detailed error analysis to investigate which factors affect their behavior. Our results show that TLMs can reach performances that are comparable to those achieved by SDM. However, additional analysis consistently suggests that TLMs do not capture important aspects of event knowledge, and their predictions often depend on surface linguistic features, such as frequent words, collocations and syntactic patterns, thereby showing sub-optimal generalization abilities.

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Can Transformer Language Models Predict Psychometric Properties?
Antonio Laverghetta Jr. | Animesh Nighojkar | Jamshidbek Mirzakhalov | John Licato

Transformer-based language models (LMs) continue to advance state-of-the-art performance on NLP benchmark tasks, including tasks designed to mimic human-inspired “commonsense” competencies. To better understand the degree to which LMs can be said to have certain linguistic reasoning skills, researchers are beginning to adapt the tools and concepts of the field of psychometrics. But to what extent can the benefits flow in the other direction? I.e., can LMs be of use in predicting what the psychometric properties of test items will be when those items are given to human participants? We gather responses from numerous human participants and LMs (transformer- and non-transformer-based) on a broad diagnostic test of linguistic competencies. We then use the responses to calculate standard psychometric properties of the items in the diagnostic test, using the human responses and the LM responses separately. We then determine how well these two sets of predictions match. We find cases in which transformer-based LMs predict psychometric properties consistently well in certain categories but consistently poorly in others, thus providing new insights into fundamental similarities and differences between human and LM reasoning.

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Semantic shift in social networks
Bill Noble | Asad Sayeed | Raquel Fernández | Staffan Larsson

Just as the meaning of words is tied to the communities in which they are used, so too is semantic change. But how does lexical semantic change manifest differently across different communities? In this work, we investigate the relationship between community structure and semantic change in 45 communities from the social media website Reddit. We use distributional methods to quantify lexical semantic change and induce a social network on communities, based on interactions between members. We explore the relationship between semantic change and the clustering coefficient of a community’s social network graph, as well as community size and stability. While none of these factors are found to be significant on their own, we report a significant effect of their three-way interaction. We also report on significant word-level effects of frequency and change in frequency, which replicate previous findings.

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A Study on Using Semantic Word Associations to Predict the Success of a Novel
Syeda Jannatus Saba | Biddut Sarker Bijoy | Henry Gorelick | Sabir Ismail | Md Saiful Islam | Mohammad Ruhul Amin

Many new books get published every year, and only a fraction of them become popular among the readers. So the prediction of a book success can be a very useful parameter for publishers to make a reliable decision. This article presents the study of semantic word associations using the word embedding of book content for a set of Roget’s thesaurus concepts for book success prediction. In this work, we discuss the method to represent a book as a spectrum of concepts based on the association score between its content embedding and a global embedding (i.e. fastText) for a set of semantically linked word clusters. We show that the semantic word associations outperform the previous methods for book success prediction. In addition, we present that semantic word associations also provide better results than using features like the frequency of word groups in Roget’s thesaurus, LIWC (a popular tool for linguistic inquiry and word count), NRC (word association emotion lexicon), and part of speech (PoS). Our study reports that concept associations based on Roget’s Thesaurus using word embedding of individual novel resulted in the state-of-the-art performance of 0.89 average weighted F1-score for book success prediction. Finally, we present a set of dominant themes that contribute towards the popularity of a book for a specific genre.

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Recovering Lexically and Semantically Reused Texts
Ansel MacLaughlin | Shaobin Xu | David A. Smith

Writers often repurpose material from existing texts when composing new documents. Because most documents have more than one source, we cannot trace these connections using only models of document-level similarity. Instead, this paper considers methods for local text reuse detection (LTRD), detecting localized regions of lexically or semantically similar text embedded in otherwise unrelated material. In extensive experiments, we study the relative performance of four classes of neural and bag-of-words models on three LTRD tasks – detecting plagiarism, modeling journalists’ use of press releases, and identifying scientists’ citation of earlier papers. We conduct evaluations on three existing datasets and a new, publicly-available citation localization dataset. Our findings shed light on a number of previously-unexplored questions in the study of LTRD, including the importance of incorporating document-level context for predictions, the applicability of of-the-shelf neural models pretrained on “general” semantic textual similarity tasks such as paraphrase detection, and the trade-offs between more efficient bag-of-words and feature-based neural models and slower pairwise neural models.

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Generating Hypothetical Events for Abductive Inference
Debjit Paul | Anette Frank

Abductive reasoning starts from some observations and aims at finding the most plausible explanation for these observations. To perform abduction, humans often make use of temporal and causal inferences, and knowledge about how some hypothetical situation can result in different outcomes. This work offers the first study of how such knowledge impacts the Abductive NLI task – which consists in choosing the more likely explanation for given observations. We train a specialized language model LMI that is tasked to generate what could happen next from a hypothetical scenario that evolves from a given event. We then propose a multi-task model MTL to solve the Abductive NLI task, which predicts a plausible explanation by a) considering different possible events emerging from candidate hypotheses – events generated by LMI – and b) selecting the one that is most similar to the observed outcome. We show that our MTL model improves over prior vanilla pre-trained LMs fine-tuned on Abductive NLI. Our manual evaluation and analysis suggest that learning about possible next events from different hypothetical scenarios supports abductive inference.

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NeuralLog: Natural Language Inference with Joint Neural and Logical Reasoning
Zeming Chen | Qiyue Gao | Lawrence S. Moss

Deep learning (DL) based language models achieve high performance on various benchmarks for Natural Language Inference (NLI). And at this time, symbolic approaches to NLI are receiving less attention. Both approaches (symbolic and DL) have their advantages and weaknesses. However, currently, no method combines them in a system to solve the task of NLI. To merge symbolic and deep learning methods, we propose an inference framework called NeuralLog, which utilizes both a monotonicity-based logical inference engine and a neural network language model for phrase alignment. Our framework models the NLI task as a classic search problem and uses the beam search algorithm to search for optimal inference paths. Experiments show that our joint logic and neural inference system improves accuracy on the NLI task and can achieve state-of-art accuracy on the SICK and MED datasets.

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Teach the Rules, Provide the Facts: Targeted Relational-knowledge Enhancement for Textual Inference
Ohad Rozen | Shmuel Amar | Vered Shwartz | Ido Dagan

We present InferBert, a method to enhance transformer-based inference models with relevant relational knowledge. Our approach facilitates learning generic inference patterns requiring relational knowledge (e.g. inferences related to hypernymy) during training, while injecting on-demand the relevant relational facts (e.g. pangolin is an animal) at test time. We apply InferBERT to the NLI task over a diverse set of inference types (hypernymy, location, color, and country of origin), for which we collected challenge datasets. In this setting, InferBert succeeds to learn general inference patterns, from a relatively small number of training instances, while not hurting performance on the original NLI data and substantially outperforming prior knowledge enhancement models on the challenge data. It further applies its inferences successfully at test time to previously unobserved entities. InferBert is computationally more efficient than most prior methods, in terms of number of parameters, memory consumption and training time.

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ParsFEVER: a Dataset for Farsi Fact Extraction and Verification
Majid Zarharan | Mahsa Ghaderan | Amin Pourdabiri | Zahra Sayedi | Behrouz Minaei-Bidgoli | Sauleh Eetemadi | Mohammad Taher Pilehvar

Training and evaluation of automatic fact extraction and verification techniques require large amounts of annotated data which might not be available for low-resource languages. This paper presents ParsFEVER: the first publicly available Farsi dataset for fact extraction and verification. We adopt the construction procedure of the standard English dataset for the task, i.e., FEVER, and improve it for the case of low-resource languages. Specifically, claims are extracted from sentences that are carefully selected to be more informative. The dataset comprises nearly 23K manually-annotated claims. Over 65% of the claims in ParsFEVER are many-hop (require evidence from multiple sources), making the dataset a challenging benchmark (only 13% of the claims in FEVER are many-hop). Also, despite having a smaller training set (around one-ninth of that in Fever), a model trained on ParsFEVER attains similar downstream performance, indicating the quality of the dataset. We release the dataset and the annotation guidelines at https://github.com/Zarharan/ParsFEVER.

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BiQuAD: Towards QA based on deeper text understanding
Frank Grimm | Philipp Cimiano

Recent question answering and machine reading benchmarks frequently reduce the task to one of pinpointing spans within a certain text passage that answers the given question. Typically, these systems are not required to actually understand the text on a deeper level that allows for more complex reasoning on the information contained. We introduce a new dataset called BiQuAD that requires deeper comprehension in order to answer questions in both extractive and deductive fashion. The dataset consist of 4,190 closed-domain texts and a total of 99,149 question-answer pairs. The texts are synthetically generated soccer match reports that verbalize the main events of each match. All texts are accompanied by a structured Datalog program that represents a (logical) model of its information. We show that state-of-the-art QA models do not perform well on the challenging long form contexts and reasoning requirements posed by the dataset. In particular, transformer based state-of-the-art models achieve F1-scores of only 39.0. We demonstrate how these synthetic datasets align structured knowledge with natural text and aid model introspection when approaching complex text understanding.

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Evaluating Universal Dependency Parser Recovery of Predicate Argument Structure via CompChain Analysis
Sagar Indurkhya | Beracah Yankama | Robert C. Berwick

Accurate recovery of predicate-argument structure from a Universal Dependency (UD) parse is central to downstream tasks such as extraction of semantic roles or event representations. This study introduces compchains, a categorization of the hierarchy of predicate dependency relations present within a UD parse. Accuracy of compchain classification serves as a proxy for measuring accurate recovery of predicate-argument structure from sentences with embedding. We analyzed the distribution of compchains in three UD English treebanks, EWT, GUM and LinES, revealing that these treebanks are sparse with respect to sentences with predicate-argument structure that includes predicate-argument embedding. We evaluated the CoNLL 2018 Shared Task UDPipe (v1.2) baseline (dependency parsing) models as compchain classifiers for the EWT, GUMS and LinES UD treebanks. Our results indicate that these three baseline models exhibit poorer performance on sentences with predicate-argument structure with more than one level of embedding; we used compchains to characterize the errors made by these parsers and present examples of erroneous parses produced by the parser that were identified using compchains. We also analyzed the distribution of compchains in 58 non-English UD treebanks and then used compchains to evaluate the CoNLL’18 Shared Task baseline model for each of these treebanks. Our analysis shows that performance with respect to compchain classification is only weakly correlated with the official evaluation metrics (LAS, MLAS and BLEX). We identify gaps in the distribution of compchains in several of the UD treebanks, thus providing a roadmap for how these treebanks may be supplemented. We conclude by discussing how compchains provide a new perspective on the sparsity of training data for UD parsers, as well as the accuracy of the resulting UD parses.

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InFillmore: Frame-Guided Language Generation with Bidirectional Context
Jiefu Ou | Nathaniel Weir | Anton Belyy | Felix Yu | Benjamin Van Durme

We propose a structured extension to bidirectional-context conditional language generation, or “infilling,” inspired by Frame Semantic theory. Guidance is provided through one of two approaches: (1) model fine-tuning, conditioning directly on observed symbolic frames, and (2) a novel extension to disjunctive lexically constrained decoding that leverages frame semantic lexical units. Automatic and human evaluations confirm that frame-guided generation allows for explicit manipulation of intended infill semantics, with minimal loss in distinguishability from human-generated text. Our methods flexibly apply to a variety of use scenarios, and we provide an interactive web demo.

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Realistic Evaluation Principles for Cross-document Coreference Resolution
Arie Cattan | Alon Eirew | Gabriel Stanovsky | Mandar Joshi | Ido Dagan

We point out that common evaluation practices for cross-document coreference resolution have been unrealistically permissive in their assumed settings, yielding inflated results. We propose addressing this issue via two evaluation methodology principles. First, as in other tasks, models should be evaluated on predicted mentions rather than on gold mentions. Doing this raises a subtle issue regarding singleton coreference clusters, which we address by decoupling the evaluation of mention detection from that of coreference linking. Second, we argue that models should not exploit the synthetic topic structure of the standard ECB+ dataset, forcing models to confront the lexical ambiguity challenge, as intended by the dataset creators. We demonstrate empirically the drastic impact of our more realistic evaluation principles on a competitive model, yielding a score which is 33 F1 lower compared to evaluating by prior lenient practices.

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Disentangling Online Chats with DAG-structured LSTMs
Duccio Pappadopulo | Lisa Bauer | Marco Farina | Ozan İrsoy | Mohit Bansal

Many modern messaging systems allow fast and synchronous textual communication among many users. The resulting sequence of messages hides a more complicated structure in which independent sub-conversations are interwoven with one another. This poses a challenge for any task aiming to understand the content of the chat logs or gather information from them. The ability to disentangle these conversations is then tantamount to the success of many downstream tasks such as summarization and question answering. Structured information accompanying the text such as user turn, user mentions, timestamps, is used as a cue by the participants themselves who need to follow the conversation and has been shown to be important for disentanglement. DAG-LSTMs, a generalization of Tree-LSTMs that can handle directed acyclic dependencies, are a natural way to incorporate such information and its non-sequential nature. In this paper, we apply DAG-LSTMs to the conversation disentanglement task. We perform our experiments on the Ubuntu IRC dataset. We show that the novel model we propose achieves state of the art status on the task of recovering reply-to relations and it is competitive on other disentanglement metrics.

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Toward Diverse Precondition Generation
Heeyoung Kwon | Nathanael Chambers | Niranjan Balasubramanian

A typical goal for language understanding is to logically connect the events of a discourse, but often connective events are not described due to their commonsense nature. In order to address this deficit, we focus here on generating precondition events. Precondition generation can be framed as a sequence-to-sequence problem: given a target event, generate a possible precondition. However, in most real-world scenarios, an event can have several preconditions, which is not always suitable for standard seq2seq frameworks. We propose DiP, the Diverse Precondition generation system that can generate unique and diverse preconditions. DiP consists of three stages of the generative process – an event sampler, a candidate generator, and a post-processor. The event sampler provides control codes (precondition triggers) which the candidate generator uses to focus its generation. Post-processing further improves the results through re-ranking and filtering. Unlike other conditional generation systems, DiP automatically generates control codes without training on diverse examples. Analysis reveals that DiP improves the diversity of preconditions significantly compared to a beam search baseline. Also, manual evaluation shows that DiP generates more preconditions than a strong nucleus sampling baseline.

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One Semantic Parser to Parse Them All: Sequence to Sequence Multi-Task Learning on Semantic Parsing Datasets
Marco Damonte | Emilio Monti

Semantic parsers map natural language utterances to meaning representations. The lack of a single standard for meaning representations led to the creation of a plethora of semantic parsing datasets. To unify different datasets and train a single model for them, we investigate the use of Multi-Task Learning (MTL) architectures. We experiment with five datasets (Geoquery, NLMaps, TOP, Overnight, AMR). We find that an MTL architecture that shares the entire network across datasets yields competitive or better parsing accuracies than the single-task baselines, while reducing the total number of parameters by 68%. We further provide evidence that MTL has also better compositional generalization than single-task models. We also present a comparison of task sampling methods and propose a competitive alternative to widespread proportional sampling strategies.

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Multilingual Neural Semantic Parsing for Low-Resourced Languages
Menglin Xia | Emilio Monti

Multilingual semantic parsing is a cost-effective method that allows a single model to understand different languages. However, researchers face a great imbalance of availability of training data, with English being resource rich, and other languages having much less data. To tackle the data limitation problem, we propose using machine translation to bootstrap multilingual training data from the more abundant English data. To compensate for the data quality of machine translated training data, we utilize transfer learning from pretrained multilingual encoders to further improve the model. To evaluate our multilingual models on human-written sentences as opposed to machine translated ones, we introduce a new multilingual semantic parsing dataset in English, Italian and Japanese based on the Facebook Task Oriented Parsing (TOP) dataset. We show that joint multilingual training with pretrained encoders substantially outperforms our baselines on the TOP dataset and outperforms the state-of-the-art model on the public NLMaps dataset. We also establish a new baseline for zero-shot learning on the TOP dataset. We find that a semantic parser trained only on English data achieves a zero-shot performance of 44.9% exact-match accuracy on Italian sentences.

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Script Parsing with Hierarchical Sequence Modelling
Fangzhou Zhai | Iza Škrjanec | Alexander Koller

Scripts capture commonsense knowledge about everyday activities and their participants. Script knowledge proved useful in a number of NLP tasks, such as referent prediction, discourse classification, and story generation. A crucial step for the exploitation of script knowledge is script parsing, the task of tagging a text with the events and participants from a certain activity. This task is challenging: it requires information both about the ways events and participants are usually uttered in surface language as well as the order in which they occur in the world. We show how to do accurate script parsing with a hierarchical sequence model and transfer learning. Our model improves the state of the art of event parsing by over 16 points F-score and, for the first time, accurately tags script participants.

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Incorporating EDS Graph for AMR Parsing
Ziyi Shou | Fangzhen Lin

AMR (Abstract Meaning Representation) and EDS (Elementary Dependency Structures) are two popular meaning representations in NLP/NLU. AMR is more abstract and conceptual, while EDS is more low level, closer to the lexical structures of the given sentences. It is thus not surprising that EDS parsing is easier than AMR parsing. In this work, we consider using information from EDS parsing to help improve the performance of AMR parsing. We adopt a transition-based parser and propose to add EDS graphs as additional semantic features using a graph encoder composed of LSTM layer and GCN layer. Our experimental results show that the additional information from EDS parsing indeed gives a boost to the performance of the base AMR parser used in our experiments.

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Dependency Patterns of Complex Sentences and Semantic Disambiguation for Abstract Meaning Representation Parsing
Yuki Yamamoto | Yuji Matsumoto | Taro Watanabe

Abstract Meaning Representation (AMR) is a sentence-level meaning representation based on predicate argument structure. One of the challenges we find in AMR parsing is to capture the structure of complex sentences which expresses the relation between predicates. Knowing the core part of the sentence structure in advance may be beneficial in such a task. In this paper, we present a list of dependency patterns for English complex sentence constructions designed for AMR parsing. With a dedicated pattern matcher, all occurrences of complex sentence constructions are retrieved from an input sentence. While some of the subordinators have semantic ambiguities, we deal with this problem through training classification models on data derived from AMR and Wikipedia corpus, establishing a new baseline for future works. The developed complex sentence patterns and the corresponding AMR descriptions will be made public.

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Neural Metaphor Detection with Visibility Embeddings
Gitit Kehat | James Pustejovsky

We present new results for the problem of sequence metaphor labeling, using the recently developed Visibility Embeddings. We show that concatenating such embeddings to the input of a BiLSTM obtains consistent and significant improvements at almost no cost, and we present further improved results when visibility embeddings are combined with BERT.

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Inducing Language-Agnostic Multilingual Representations
Wei Zhao | Steffen Eger | Johannes Bjerva | Isabelle Augenstein

Cross-lingual representations have the potential to make NLP techniques available to the vast majority of languages in the world. However, they currently require large pretraining corpora or access to typologically similar languages. In this work, we address these obstacles by removing language identity signals from multilingual embeddings. We examine three approaches for this: (i) re-aligning the vector spaces of target languages (all together) to a pivot source language; (ii) removing language-specific means and variances, which yields better discriminativeness of embeddings as a by-product; and (iii) increasing input similarity across languages by removing morphological contractions and sentence reordering. We evaluate on XNLI and reference-free MT evaluation across 19 typologically diverse languages. Our findings expose the limitations of these approaches—unlike vector normalization, vector space re-alignment and text normalization do not achieve consistent gains across encoders and languages. Due to the approaches’ additive effects, their combination decreases the cross-lingual transfer gap by 8.9 points (m-BERT) and 18.2 points (XLM-R) on average across all tasks and languages, however.

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Modeling Sense Structure in Word Usage Graphs with the Weighted Stochastic Block Model
Dominik Schlechtweg | Enrique Castaneda | Jonas Kuhn | Sabine Schulte im Walde

We suggest to model human-annotated Word Usage Graphs capturing fine-grained semantic proximity distinctions between word uses with a Bayesian formulation of the Weighted Stochastic Block Model, a generative model for random graphs popular in biology, physics and social sciences. By providing a probabilistic model of graded word meaning we aim to approach the slippery and yet widely used notion of word sense in a novel way. The proposed framework enables us to rigorously compare models of word senses with respect to their fit to the data. We perform extensive experiments and select the empirically most adequate model.

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Compound or Term Features? Analyzing Salience in Predicting the Difficulty of German Noun Compounds across Domains
Anna Hätty | Julia Bettinger | Michael Dorna | Jonas Kuhn | Sabine Schulte im Walde

Predicting the difficulty of domain-specific vocabulary is an important task towards a better understanding of a domain, and to enhance the communication between lay people and experts. We investigate German closed noun compounds and focus on the interaction of compound-based lexical features (such as frequency and productivity) and terminology-based features (contrasting domain-specific and general language) across word representations and classifiers. Our prediction experiments complement insights from classification using (a) manually designed features to characterise termhood and compound formation and (b) compound and constituent word embeddings. We find that for a broad binary distinction into ‘easy’ vs. ‘difficult’ general-language compound frequency is sufficient, but for a more fine-grained four-class distinction it is crucial to include contrastive termhood features and compound and constituent features.

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Spurious Correlations in Cross-Topic Argument Mining
Terne Sasha Thorn Jakobsen | Maria Barrett | Anders Søgaard

Recent work in cross-topic argument mining attempts to learn models that generalise across topics rather than merely relying on within-topic spurious correlations. We examine the effectiveness of this approach by analysing the output of single-task and multi-task models for cross-topic argument mining, through a combination of linear approximations of their decision boundaries, manual feature grouping, challenge examples, and ablations across the input vocabulary. Surprisingly, we show that cross-topic models still rely mostly on spurious correlations and only generalise within closely related topics, e.g., a model trained only on closed-class words and a few common open-class words outperforms a state-of-the-art cross-topic model on distant target topics.

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Learning Embeddings for Rare Words Leveraging Internet Search Engine and Spatial Location Relationships
Xiaotao Li | Shujuan You | Yawen Niu | Wai Chen

Word embedding techniques depend heavily on the frequencies of words in the corpus, and are negatively impacted by failures in providing reliable representations for low-frequency words or unseen words during training. To address this problem, we propose an algorithm to learn embeddings for rare words based on an Internet search engine and the spatial location relationships. Our algorithm proceeds in two steps. We firstly retrieve webpages corresponding to the rare word through the search engine and parse the returned results to extract a set of most related words. We average the vectors of the related words as the initial vector of the rare word. Then, the location of the rare word in the vector space is iteratively fine-tuned according to the order of its relevances to the related words. Compared to other approaches, our algorithm can learn more accurate representations for a wider range of vocabulary. We evaluate our learned rare-word embeddings on the word relatedness task, and the experimental results show that our algorithm achieves state-of-the-art performance.

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Overcoming Poor Word Embeddings with Word Definitions
Christopher Malon

Modern natural language understanding models depend on pretrained subword embeddings, but applications may need to reason about words that were never or rarely seen during pretraining. We show that examples that depend critically on a rarer word are more challenging for natural language inference models. Then we explore how a model could learn to use definitions, provided in natural text, to overcome this handicap. Our model’s understanding of a definition is usually weaker than a well-modeled word embedding, but it recovers most of the performance gap from using a completely untrained word.

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Denoising Word Embeddings by Averaging in a Shared Space
Avi Caciularu | Ido Dagan | Jacob Goldberger

We introduce a new approach for smoothing and improving the quality of word embeddings. We consider a method of fusing word embeddings that were trained on the same corpus but with different initializations. We project all the models to a shared vector space using an efficient implementation of the Generalized Procrustes Analysis (GPA) procedure, previously used in multilingual word translation. Our word representation demonstrates consistent improvements over the raw models as well as their simplistic average, on a range of tasks. As the new representations are more stable and reliable, there is a noticeable improvement in rare word evaluations.

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Evaluating a Joint Training Approach for Learning Cross-lingual Embeddings with Sub-word Information without Parallel Corpora on Lower-resource Languages
Ali Hakimi Parizi | Paul Cook

Cross-lingual word embeddings provide a way for information to be transferred between languages. In this paper we evaluate an extension of a joint training approach to learning cross-lingual embeddings that incorporates sub-word information during training. This method could be particularly well-suited to lower-resource and morphologically-rich languages because it can be trained on modest size monolingual corpora, and is able to represent out-of-vocabulary words (OOVs). We consider bilingual lexicon induction, including an evaluation focused on OOVs. We find that this method achieves improvements over previous approaches, particularly for OOVs.

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Adversarial Training for Machine Reading Comprehension with Virtual Embeddings
Ziqing Yang | Yiming Cui | Chenglei Si | Wanxiang Che | Ting Liu | Shijin Wang | Guoping Hu

Adversarial training (AT) as a regularization method has proved its effectiveness on various tasks. Though there are successful applications of AT on some NLP tasks, the distinguishing characteristics of NLP tasks have not been exploited. In this paper, we aim to apply AT on machine reading comprehension (MRC) tasks. Furthermore, we adapt AT for MRC tasks by proposing a novel adversarial training method called PQAT that perturbs the embedding matrix instead of word vectors. To differentiate the roles of passages and questions, PQAT uses additional virtual P/Q-embedding matrices to gather the global perturbations of words from passages and questions separately. We test the method on a wide range of MRC tasks, including span-based extractive RC and multiple-choice RC. The results show that adversarial training is effective universally, and PQAT further improves the performance.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Simple and Efficient Natural Language Processing

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Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Simple and Efficient Natural Language Processing
Nafise Sadat Moosavi | Iryna Gurevych | Angela Fan | Thomas Wolf | Yufang Hou | Ana Marasović | Sujith Ravi

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Low Resource Quadratic Forms for Knowledge Graph Embeddings
Zachary Zhou | Jeffery Kline | Devin Conathan | Glenn Fung

We address the problem of link prediction between entities and relations of knowledge graphs. State of the art techniques that address this problem, while increasingly accurate, are computationally intensive. In this paper we cast link prediction as a sparse convex program whose solution defines a quadratic form that is used as a ranking function. The structure of our convex program is such that standard support vector machine software packages, which are numerically robust and efficient, can solve it. We show that on benchmark data sets, our model’s performance is competitive with state of the art models, but training times can be reduced by a factor of 40 using only CPU-based (and not GPU-accelerated) computing resources. This approach may be suitable for applications where balancing the demands of graph completion performance against computational efficiency is a desirable trade-off.

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Evaluating the carbon footprint of NLP methods: a survey and analysis of existing tools
Nesrine Bannour | Sahar Ghannay | Aurélie Névéol | Anne-Laure Ligozat

Modern Natural Language Processing (NLP) makes intensive use of deep learning methods because of the accuracy they offer for a variety of applications. Due to the significant environmental impact of deep learning, cost-benefit analysis including carbon footprint as well as accuracy measures has been suggested to better document the use of NLP methods for research or deployment. In this paper, we review the tools that are available to measure energy use and CO2 emissions of NLP methods. We describe the scope of the measures provided and compare the use of six tools (carbon tracker, experiment impact tracker, green algorithms, ML CO2 impact, energy usage and cumulator) on named entity recognition experiments performed on different computational set-ups (local server vs. computing facility). Based on these findings, we propose actionable recommendations to accurately measure the environmental impact of NLP experiments.

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Limitations of Knowledge Distillation for Zero-shot Transfer Learning
Saleh Soltan | Haidar Khan | Wael Hamza

Pretrained transformer-based encoders such as BERT have been demonstrated to achieve state-of-the-art performance on numerous NLP tasks. Despite their success, BERT style encoders are large in size and have high latency during inference (especially on CPU machines) which make them unappealing for many online applications. Recently introduced compression and distillation methods have provided effective ways to alleviate this shortcoming. However, the focus of these works has been mainly on monolingual encoders. Motivated by recent successes in zero-shot cross-lingual transfer learning using multilingual pretrained encoders such as mBERT, we evaluate the effectiveness of Knowledge Distillation (KD) both during pretraining stage and during fine-tuning stage on multilingual BERT models. We demonstrate that in contradiction to the previous observation in the case of monolingual distillation, in multilingual settings, distillation during pretraining is more effective than distillation during fine-tuning for zero-shot transfer learning. Moreover, we observe that distillation during fine-tuning may hurt zero-shot cross-lingual performance. Finally, we demonstrate that distilling a larger model (BERT Large) results in the strongest distilled model that performs best both on the source language as well as target languages in zero-shot settings.

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Countering the Influence of Essay Length in Neural Essay Scoring
Sungho Jeon | Michael Strube

Previous work has shown that automated essay scoring systems, in particular machine learning-based systems, are not capable of assessing the quality of essays, but are relying on essay length, a factor irrelevant to writing proficiency. In this work, we first show that state-of-the-art systems, recent neural essay scoring systems, might be also influenced by the correlation between essay length and scores in a standard dataset. In our evaluation, a very simple neural model shows the state-of-the-art performance on the standard dataset. To consider essay content without taking essay length into account, we introduce a simple neural model assessing the similarity of content between an input essay and essays assigned different scores. This neural model achieves performance comparable to the state of the art on a standard dataset as well as on a second dataset. Our findings suggest that neural essay scoring systems should consider the characteristics of datasets to focus on text quality.

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Memory-efficient Transformers via Top-k Attention
Ankit Gupta | Guy Dar | Shaya Goodman | David Ciprut | Jonathan Berant

Following the success of dot-product attention in Transformers, numerous approximations have been recently proposed to address its quadratic complexity with respect to the input length. While these variants are memory and compute efficient, it is not possible to directly use them with popular pre-trained language models trained using vanilla attention, without an expensive corrective pre-training stage. In this work, we propose a simple yet highly accurate approximation for vanilla attention. We process the queries in chunks, and for each query, compute the top-*k* scores with respect to the keys. Our approach offers several advantages: (a) its memory usage is linear in the input size, similar to linear attention variants, such as Performer and RFA (b) it is a drop-in replacement for vanilla attention that does not require any corrective pre-training, and (c) it can also lead to significant memory savings in the feed-forward layers after casting them into the familiar query-key-value framework. We evaluate the quality of top-*k* approximation for multi-head attention layers on the Long Range Arena Benchmark, and for feed-forward layers of T5 and UnifiedQA on multiple QA datasets. We show our approach leads to accuracy that is nearly-identical to vanilla attention in multiple setups including training from scratch, fine-tuning, and zero-shot inference.

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BioCopy: A Plug-And-Play Span Copy Mechanism in Seq2Seq Models
Yi Liu | Guoan Zhang | Puning Yu | Jianlin Su | Shengfeng Pan

Copy mechanisms explicitly obtain unchanged tokens from the source (input) sequence to generate the target (output) sequence under the neural seq2seq framework. However, most of the existing copy mechanisms only consider single word copying from the source sentences, which results in losing essential tokens while copying long spans. In this work, we propose a plug-and-play architecture, namely BioCopy, to alleviate the problem aforementioned. Specifically, in the training stage, we construct a BIO tag for each token and train the original model with BIO tags jointly. In the inference stage, the model will firstly predict the BIO tag at each time step, then conduct different mask strategies based on the predicted BIO label to diminish the scope of the probability distributions over the vocabulary list. Experimental results on two separate generative tasks show that they all outperform the baseline models by adding our BioCopy to the original model structure.

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Combining Lexical and Dense Retrieval for Computationally Efficient Multi-hop Question Answering
Georgios Sidiropoulos | Nikos Voskarides | Svitlana Vakulenko | Evangelos Kanoulas

In simple open-domain question answering (QA), dense retrieval has become one of the standard approaches for retrieving the relevant passages to infer an answer. Recently, dense retrieval also achieved state-of-the-art results in multi-hop QA, where aggregating information from multiple pieces of information and reasoning over them is required. Despite their success, dense retrieval methods are computationally intensive, requiring multiple GPUs to train. In this work, we introduce a hybrid (lexical and dense) retrieval approach that is highly competitive with the state-of-the-art dense retrieval models, while requiring substantially less computational resources. Additionally, we provide an in-depth evaluation of dense retrieval methods on limited computational resource settings, something that is missing from the current literature.

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Learning to Rank in the Age of Muppets: Effectiveness–Efficiency Tradeoffs in Multi-Stage Ranking
Yue Zhang | ChengCheng Hu | Yuqi Liu | Hui Fang | Jimmy Lin

It is well known that rerankers built on pretrained transformer models such as BERT have dramatically improved retrieval effectiveness in many tasks. However, these gains have come at substantial costs in terms of efficiency, as noted by many researchers. In this work, we show that it is possible to retain the benefits of transformer-based rerankers in a multi-stage reranking pipeline by first using feature-based learning-to-rank techniques to reduce the number of candidate documents under consideration without adversely affecting their quality in terms of recall. Applied to the MS MARCO passage and document ranking tasks, we are able to achieve the same level of effectiveness, but with up to 18× increase in efficiency. Furthermore, our techniques are orthogonal to other methods focused on accelerating transformer inference, and thus can be combined for even greater efficiency gains. A higher-level message from our work is that, even though pretrained transformers dominate the modern IR landscape, there are still important roles for “traditional” LTR techniques, and that we should not forget history.

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Improving Synonym Recommendation Using Sentence Context
Maria Glenski | William I. Sealy | Kate Miller | Dustin Arendt

Traditional synonym recommendations often include ill-suited suggestions for writer’s specific contexts. We propose a simple approach for contextual synonym recommendation by combining existing human-curated thesauri, e.g. WordNet, with pre-trained language models. We evaluate our technique by curating a set of word-sentence pairs balanced across corpora and parts of speech, then annotating each word-sentence pair with the contextually appropriate set of synonyms. We found that basic language model approaches have higher precision. Approaches leveraging sentence context have higher recall. Overall, the latter contextual approach had the highest F-score.

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Semantic Categorization of Social Knowledge for Commonsense Question Answering
Gengyu Wang | Xiaochen Hou | Diyi Yang | Kathleen McKeown | Jing Huang

Large pre-trained language models (PLMs) have led to great success on various commonsense question answering (QA) tasks in an end-to-end fashion. However, little attention has been paid to what commonsense knowledge is needed to deeply characterize these QA tasks. In this work, we proposed to categorize the semantics needed for these tasks using the SocialIQA as an example. Building upon our labeled social knowledge categories dataset on top of SocialIQA, we further train neural QA models to incorporate such social knowledge categories and relation information from a knowledge base. Unlike previous work, we observe our models with semantic categorizations of social knowledge can achieve comparable performance with a relatively simple model and smaller size compared to other complex approaches.

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Speeding Up Transformer Training By Using Dataset Subsampling - An Exploratory Analysis
Lovre Torbarina | Velimir Mihelčić | Bruno Šarlija | Lukasz Roguski | Željko Kraljević

Transformer-based models have greatly advanced the progress in the field of the natural language processing and while they achieve state-of-the-art results on a wide range of tasks, they are cumbersome in parameter size. Subsequently, even when pre-trained transformer models are used for fine-tuning on a given task, if the dataset is large, it may still not be feasible to fine-tune the model within a reasonable time. For this reason, we empirically test 8 subsampling methods for reducing the dataset size on text classification task and report the trade-off between metric score and training time. 7 out of 8 methods are simple methods, while the last one is CRAIG, a method for coreset construction for data-efficient model training. We obtain the best result with the CRAIG method, offering an average decrease of 0.03 points in f-score on test set while speeding up the training time on average by 63.93%, relative to the score and time obtained by using the full dataset. Lastly, we show the trade-off between speed and performance for all sampling methods on three different datasets.

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Hyperparameter Power Impact in Transformer Language Model Training
Lucas Høyberg Puvis de Chavannes | Mads Guldborg Kjeldgaard Kongsbak | Timmie Rantzau | Leon Derczynski

Training large language models can consume a large amount of energy. We hypothesize that the language model’s configuration impacts its energy consumption, and that there is room for power consumption optimisation in modern large language models. To investigate these claims, we introduce a power consumption factor to the objective function, and explore the range of models and hyperparameter configurations that affect power. We identify multiple configuration factors that can reduce power consumption during language model training while retaining model quality.

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Distiller: A Systematic Study of Model Distillation Methods in Natural Language Processing
Haoyu He | Xingjian Shi | Jonas Mueller | Sheng Zha | Mu Li | George Karypis

Knowledge Distillation (KD) offers a natural way to reduce the latency and memory/energy usage of massive pretrained models that have come to dominate Natural Language Processing (NLP) in recent years. While numerous sophisticated variants of KD algorithms have been proposed for NLP applications, the key factors underpinning the optimal distillation performance are often confounded and remain unclear. We aim to identify how different components in the KD pipeline affect the resulting performance and how much the optimal KD pipeline varies across different datasets/tasks, such as the data augmentation policy, the loss function, and the intermediate representation for transferring the knowledge between teacher and student. To tease apart their effects, we propose Distiller, a meta KD framework that systematically combines a broad range of techniques across different stages of the KD pipeline, which enables us to quantify each component’s contribution. Within Distiller, we unify commonly used objectives for distillation of intermediate representations under a universal mutual information (MI) objective and propose a class of MI-objective functions with better bias/variance trade-off for estimating the MI between the teacher and the student. On a diverse set of NLP datasets, the best Distiller configurations are identified via large-scale hyper-parameter optimization. Our experiments reveal the following: 1) the approach used to distill the intermediate representations is the most important factor in KD performance, 2) among different objectives for intermediate distillation, MI-performs the best, and 3) data augmentation provides a large boost for small training datasets or small student networks. Moreover, we find that different datasets/tasks prefer different KD algorithms, and thus propose a simple AutoDistiller algorithm that can recommend a good KD pipeline for a new dataset.

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Shrinking Bigfoot: Reducing wav2vec 2.0 footprint
Zilun Peng | Akshay Budhkar | Ilana Tuil | Jason Levy | Parinaz Sobhani | Raphael Cohen | Jumana Nassour

Wav2vec 2.0 is a state-of-the-art speech recognition model which maps speech audio waveforms into latent representations. The largest version of wav2vec 2.0 contains 317 million parameters. Hence, the inference latency of wav2vec 2.0 will be a bottleneck in production, leading to high costs and a significant environmental footprint. To improve wav2vec’s applicability to a production setting, we explore multiple model compression methods borrowed from the domain of large language models. Using a teacher-student approach, we distilled the knowledge from the original wav2vec 2.0 model into a student model, which is 2 times faster, 4.8 times smaller than the original model. More importantly, the student model is 2 times more energy efficient than the original model in terms of CO2 emission. This increase in performance is accomplished with only a 7% degradation in word error rate (WER). Our quantized model is 3.6 times smaller than the original model, with only a 0.1% degradation in WER. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first work that compresses wav2vec 2.0.

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On the Role of Corpus Ordering in Language Modeling
Ameeta Agrawal | Suresh Singh | Lauren Schneider | Michael Samuels

Language models pretrained on vast corpora of unstructured text using self-supervised learning framework are used in numerous natural language understanding and generation tasks. Many studies show that language acquisition in humans follows a rather structured simple-to-complex pattern and guided by this intuition, curriculum learning, which enables training of computational models in a meaningful order, such as processing easy samples before hard ones, has been shown to potentially reduce training time. The question remains whether curriculum learning can benefit pretraining of language models. In this work, we perform comprehensive experiments involving multiple curricula strategies varying the criteria for complexity and the training schedules. Empirical results of training transformer language models on English corpus and evaluating it intrinsically as well as after fine-tuning across eight tasks from the GLUE benchmark, show consistent improvement gains over conventional vanilla training. Interestingly, in our experiments, when evaluated on one epoch, the best model following a document-level hard-to-easy curriculum, outperforms the vanilla model by 1.7 points (average GLUE score) and it takes the vanilla model twice as many training steps to reach comparable performance.

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Efficient Domain Adaptation of Language Models via Adaptive Tokenization
Vin Sachidananda | Jason Kessler | Yi-An Lai

Contextual embedding-based language models trained on large data sets, such as BERT and RoBERTa, provide strong performance across a wide range of tasks and are ubiquitous in modern NLP. It has been observed that fine-tuning these models on tasks involving data from domains different from that on which they were pretrained can lead to suboptimal performance. Recent work has explored approaches to adapt pretrained language models to new domains by incorporating additional pretraining on domain-specific corpora and task data. We propose an alternative approach for transferring pretrained language models to new domains by adapting their tokenizers. We show that domain-specific subword sequences can be determined efficiently directly from divergences in the conditional token distributions of the base and domain-specific corpora. In datasets from four disparate domains, we find adaptive tokenization on a pretrained RoBERTa model provides greater than 85% of the performance benefits of domain specific pretraining. Our approach produces smaller models and less training and inference time than other approaches using tokenizer augmentation. Although using adaptive tokenization incurs a 6% increase in model parameters (due to the introduction of 10k new domain-specific tokens), our approach, using 64 CPUs, is >72x faster than further pretraining the language model on domain-specific corpora on 8 TPUs.

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Unsupervised Contextualized Document Representation
Ankur Gupta | Vivek Gupta

Several NLP tasks need the effective repre-sentation of text documents.Arora et al.,2017 demonstrate that simple weighted aver-aging of word vectors frequently outperformsneural models. SCDV (Mekala et al., 2017)further extends this from sentences to docu-ments by employing soft and sparse cluster-ing over pre-computed word vectors. How-ever, both techniques ignore the polysemyand contextual character of words. In thispaper, we address this issue by proposingSCDV+BERT(ctxd), a simple and effective un-supervised representation that combines con-textualized BERT (Devlin et al., 2019) basedword embedding for word sense disambigua-tion with SCDV soft clustering approach. Weshow that our embeddings outperform origi-nal SCDV, pre-train BERT, and several otherbaselines on many classification datasets. Wealso demonstrate our embeddings effective-ness on other tasks, such as concept match-ing and sentence similarity. In addition,we show that SCDV+BERT(ctxd) outperformsfine-tune BERT and different embedding ap-proaches in scenarios with limited data andonly few shots examples.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Fifth Workshop on Teaching NLP

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Proceedings of the Fifth Workshop on Teaching NLP
David Jurgens | Varada Kolhatkar | Lucy Li | Margot Mieskes | Ted Pedersen

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Pedagogical Principles in the Online Teaching of Text Mining: A Retrospection
Rajkumar Saini | György Kovács | Mohamadreza Faridghasemnia | Hamam Mokayed | Oluwatosin Adewumi | Pedro Alonso | Sumit Rakesh | Marcus Liwicki

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has brought online education to the forefront of pedagogical discussions. To make this increased interest sustainable in a post-pandemic era, online courses must be built on strong pedagogical foundations. With a long history of pedagogic research, there are many principles, frameworks, and models available to help teachers in doing so. These models cover different teaching perspectives, such as constructive alignment, feedback, and the learning environment. In this paper, we discuss how we designed and implemented our online Natural Language Processing (NLP) course following constructive alignment and adhering to the pedagogical principles of LTU. By examining our course and analyzing student evaluation forms, we show that we have met our goal and successfully delivered the course. Furthermore, we discuss the additional benefits resulting from the current mode of delivery, including the increased reusability of course content and increased potential for collaboration between universities. Lastly, we also discuss where we can and will further improve the current course design.

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Teaching a Massive Open Online Course on Natural Language Processing
Ekaterina Artemova | Murat Apishev | Denis Kirianov | Veronica Sarkisyan | Sergey Aksenov | Oleg Serikov

In this paper we present a new Massive Open Online Course on Natural Language Processing, targeted at non-English speaking students. The course lasts 12 weeks, every week consists of lectures, practical sessions and quiz assigments. Three weeks out of 12 are followed by Kaggle-style coding assigments. Our course intents to serve multiple purposes: (i) familirize students with the core concepts and methods in NLP, such as language modelling or word or sentence representations, (ii) show that recent advances, including pre-trained Transformer-based models, are build upon these concepts; (iii) to introduce architectures for most most demanded real-life applications, (iii) to develop practical skills to process texts in multiple languages. The course was prepared and recorded during 2020 and so far have received positive feedback.

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Natural Language Processing 4 All (NLP4All): A New Online Platform for Teaching and Learning NLP Concepts
Rebekah Baglini | Hermes Hjorth

Natural Language Processing offers new insights into language data across almost all disciplines and domains, and allows us to corroborate and/or challenge existing knowledge. The primary hurdles to widening participation in and use of these new research tools are, first, a lack of coding skills in students across K-16, and in the population at large, and second, a lack of knowledge of how NLP-methods can be used to answer questions of disciplinary interest outside of linguistics and/or computer science. To broaden participation in NLP and improve NLP-literacy, we introduced a new tool web-based tool called Natural Language Processing 4 All (NLP4All). The intended purpose of NLP4All is to help teachers facilitate learning with and about NLP, by providing easy-to-use interfaces to NLP-methods, data, and analyses, making it possible for non- and novice-programmers to learn NLP concepts interactively.

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A New Broad NLP Training from Speech to Knowledge
Maxime Amblard | Miguel Couceiro

In 2018, the Master Sc. in NLP opened at IDMC - Institut des Sciences du Digital, du Management et de la Cognition, Université de Lorraine - Nancy, France. Far from being a creation ex-nihilo, it is the product of a history and many reflections on the field and its teaching. This article proposes epistemological and critical elements on the opening and maintainance of this so far new master’s program in NLP.

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Applied Language Technology: NLP for the Humanities
Tuomo Hiippala

This contribution describes a two-course module that seeks to provide humanities majors with a basic understanding of language technology and its applications using Python. The learning materials consist of interactive Jupyter Notebooks and accompanying YouTube videos, which are openly available with a Creative Commons licence.

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A Crash Course on Ethics for Natural Language Processing
Annemarie Friedrich | Torsten Zesch

It is generally agreed upon in the natural language processing (NLP) community that ethics should be integrated into any curriculum. Being aware of and understanding the relevant core concepts is a prerequisite for following and participating in the discourse on ethical NLP. We here present ready-made teaching material in the form of slides and practical exercises on ethical issues in NLP, which is primarily intended to be integrated into introductory NLP or computational linguistics courses. By making this material freely available, we aim at lowering the threshold to adding ethics to the curriculum. We hope that increased awareness will enable students to identify potentially unethical behavior.

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A dissemination workshop for introducing young Italian students to NLP
Lucio Messina | Lucia Busso | Claudia Roberta Combei | Alessio Miaschi | Ludovica Pannitto | Gabriele Sarti | Malvina Nissim

We describe and make available the game-based material developed for a laboratory run at several Italian science festivals to popularize NLP among young students.

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MiniVQA - A resource to build your tailored VQA competition
Jean-Benoit Delbrouck

MiniVQA is a Jupyter notebook to build a tailored VQA competition for your students. The resource creates all the needed resources to create a classroom competition that engages and inspires your students on the free, self-service Kaggle platform. “InClass competitions make machine learning fun¡‘.

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From back to the roots into the gated woods: Deep learning for NLP
Barbara Plank

Deep neural networks have revolutionized many fields, including Natural Language Processing. This paper outlines teaching materials for an introductory lecture on deep learning in Natural Language Processing (NLP). The main submitted material covers a summer school lecture on encoder-decoder models. Complementary to this is a set of jupyter notebook slides from earlier teaching, on which parts of the lecture were based on. The main goal of this teaching material is to provide an overview of neural network approaches to natural language processing, while linking modern concepts back to the roots showing traditional essential counterparts. The lecture departs from count-based statistical methods and spans up to gated recurrent networks and attention, which is ubiquitous in today’s NLP.

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Learning PyTorch Through A Neural Dependency Parsing Exercise
David Jurgens

Dependency parsing is increasingly the popular parsing formalism in practice. This assignment provides a practice exercise in implementing the shift-reduce dependency parser of Chen and Manning (2014). This parser is a two-layer feed-forward neural network, which students implement in PyTorch, providing practice in developing deep learning models and exposure to developing parser models.

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A Balanced and Broadly Targeted Computational Linguistics Curriculum
Emma Manning | Nathan Schneider | Amir Zeldes

This paper describes the primarily-graduate computational linguistics and NLP curriculum at Georgetown University, a U.S. university that has seen significant growth in these areas in recent years. We reflect on the principles behind our curriculum choices, including recognizing the various academic backgrounds and goals of our students; teaching a variety of skills with an emphasis on working directly with data; encouraging collaboration and interdisciplinary work; and including languages beyond English. We reflect on challenges we have encountered, such as the difficulty of teaching programming skills alongside NLP fundamentals, and discuss areas for future growth.

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Gaining Experience with Structured Data: Using the Resources of Dialog State Tracking Challenge 2
Ronnie Smith

This paper describes a class project for a recently introduced undergraduate NLP course that gives computer science students the opportunity to explore the data of Dialog State Tracking Challenge 2 (DSTC 2). Student background, curriculum choices, and project details are discussed. The paper concludes with some instructor advice and final reflections.

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The Flipped Classroom model for teaching Conditional Random Fields in an NLP course
Manex Agirrezabal

In this article, we show and discuss our experience in applying the flipped classroom method for teaching Conditional Random Fields in a Natural Language Processing course. We present the activities that we developed together with their relationship to a cognitive complexity model (Bloom’s taxonomy). After this, we provide our own reflections and expectations of the model itself. Based on the evaluation got from students, it seems that students learn about the topic and also that the method is rewarding for some students. Additionally, we discuss some shortcomings and we propose possible solutions to them. We conclude the paper with some possible future work.

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Flamingos and Hedgehogs in the Croquet-Ground: Teaching Evaluation of NLP Systems for Undergraduate Students
Brielen Madureira

This report describes the course Evaluation of NLP Systems, taught for Computational Linguistics undergraduate students during the winter semester 20/21 at the University of Potsdam, Germany. It was a discussion-based seminar that covered different aspects of evaluation in NLP, namely paradigms, common procedures, data annotation, metrics and measurements, statistical significance testing, best practices and common approaches in specific NLP tasks and applications.

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An Immersive Computational Text Analysis Course for Non-Computer Science Students at Barnard College
Adam Poliak | Jalisha Jenifer

We provide an overview of a new Computational Text Analysis course that will be taught at Barnard College over a six week period in May and June 2021. The course is targeted to non Computer Science at a Liberal Arts college that wish to incorporate fundamental Natural Language Processing tools in their re- search and studies. During the course, students will complete daily programming tutorials, read and review contemporary research papers, and propose and develop independent research projects.

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Introducing Information Retrieval for Biomedical Informatics Students
Sanya Taneja | Richard Boyce | William Reynolds | Denis Newman-Griffis

Introducing biomedical informatics (BMI) students to natural language processing (NLP) requires balancing technical depth with practical know-how to address application-focused needs. We developed a set of three activities introducing introductory BMI students to information retrieval with NLP, covering document representation strategies and language models from TF-IDF to BERT. These activities provide students with hands-on experience targeted towards common use cases, and introduce fundamental components of NLP workflows for a wide variety of applications.

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Contemporary NLP Modeling in Six Comprehensive Programming Assignments
Greg Durrett | Jifan Chen | Shrey Desai | Tanya Goyal | Lucas Kabela | Yasumasa Onoe | Jiacheng Xu

We present a series of programming assignments, adaptable to a range of experience levels from advanced undergraduate to PhD, to teach students design and implementation of modern NLP systems. These assignments build from the ground up and emphasize full-stack understanding of machine learning models: initially, students implement inference and gradient computation by hand, then use PyTorch to build nearly state-of-the-art neural networks using current best practices. Topics are chosen to cover a wide range of modeling and inference techniques that one might encounter, ranging from linear models suitable for industry applications to state-of-the-art deep learning models used in NLP research. The assignments are customizable, with constrained options to guide less experienced students or open-ended options giving advanced students freedom to explore. All of them can be deployed in a fully autogradable fashion, and have collectively been tested on over 300 students across several semesters.

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Interactive Assignments for Teaching Structured Neural NLP
David Gaddy | Daniel Fried | Nikita Kitaev | Mitchell Stern | Rodolfo Corona | John DeNero | Dan Klein

We present a set of assignments for a graduate-level NLP course. Assignments are designed to be interactive, easily gradable, and to give students hands-on experience with several key types of structure (sequences, tags, parse trees, and logical forms), modern neural architectures (LSTMs and Transformers), inference algorithms (dynamic programs and approximate search) and training methods (full and weak supervision). We designed assignments to build incrementally both within each assignment and across assignments, with the goal of enabling students to undertake graduate-level research in NLP by the end of the course.

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Learning about Word Vector Representations and Deep Learning through Implementing Word2vec
David Jurgens

Word vector representations are an essential part of an NLP curriculum. Here, we describe a homework that has students implement a popular method for learning word vectors, word2vec. Students implement the core parts of the method, including text preprocessing, negative sampling, and gradient descent. Starter code provides guidance and handles basic operations, which allows students to focus on the conceptually challenging aspects. After generating their vectors, students evaluate them using qualitative and quantitative tests.

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Naive Bayes versus BERT: Jupyter notebook assignments for an introductory NLP course
Jennifer Foster | Joachim Wagner

We describe two Jupyter notebooks that form the basis of two assignments in an introductory Natural Language Processing (NLP) module taught to final year undergraduate students at Dublin City University. The notebooks show the students how to train a bag-of-words polarity classifier using multinomial Naive Bayes, and how to fine-tune a polarity classifier using BERT. The students take the code as a starting point for their own experiments.

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Natural Language Processing for Computer Scientists and Data Scientists at a Large State University
Casey Kennington

The field of Natural Language Processing (NLP) changes rapidly, requiring course offerings to adjust with those changes, and NLP is not just for computer scientists; it’s a field that should be accessible to anyone who has a sufficient background. In this paper, I explain how students with Computer Science and Data Science backgrounds can be well-prepared for an upper-division NLP course at a large state university. The course covers probability and information theory, elementary linguistics, machine and deep learning, with an attempt to balance theoretical ideas and concepts with practical applications. I explain the course objectives, topics and assignments, reflect on adjustments to the course over the last four years, as well as feedback from students.

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On Writing a Textbook on Natural Language Processing
Jacob Eisenstein

There are thousands of papers about natural language processing and computational linguistics, but very few textbooks. I describe the motivation and process for writing a college textbook on natural language processing, and offer advice and encouragement for readers who may be interested in writing a textbook of their own.

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Learning How To Learn NLP: Developing Introductory Concepts Through Scaffolded Discovery
Alexandra Schofield | Richard Wicentowski | Julie Medero

We present a scaffolded discovery learning approach to introducing concepts in a Natural Language Processing course aimed at computer science students at liberal arts institutions. We describe some of the objectives of this approach, as well as presenting specific ways that four of our discovery-based assignments combine specific natural language processing concepts with broader analytic skills. We argue this approach helps prepare students for many possible future paths involving both application and innovation of NLP technology by emphasizing experimental data navigation, experiment design, and awareness of the complexities and challenges of analysis.

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The Online Pivot: Lessons Learned from Teaching a Text and Data Mining Course in Lockdown, Enhancing online Teaching with Pair Programming and Digital Badges
Beatrice Alex | Clare Llewellyn | Pawel Orzechowski | Maria Boutchkova

In this paper we provide an account of how we ported a text and data mining course online in summer 2020 as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic and how we improved it in a second pilot run. We describe the course, how we adapted it over the two pilot runs and what teaching techniques we used to improve students’ learning and community building online. We also provide information on the relentless feedback collected during the course which helped us to adapt our teaching from one session to the next and one pilot to the next. We discuss the lessons learned and promote the use of innovative teaching techniques applied to the digital such as digital badges and pair programming in break-out rooms for teaching Natural Language Processing courses to beginners and students with different backgrounds.

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Teaching NLP outside Linguistics and Computer Science classrooms: Some challenges and some opportunities
Sowmya Vajjala

NLP’s sphere of influence went much beyond computer science research and the development of software applications in the past decade. We see people using NLP methods in a range of academic disciplines from Asian Studies to Clinical Oncology. We also notice the presence of NLP as a module in most of the data science curricula within and outside of regular university setups. These courses are taken by students from very diverse backgrounds. This paper takes a closer look at some issues related to teaching NLP to these diverse audiences based on my classroom experiences, and identifies some challenges the instructors face, particularly when there is no ecosystem of related courses for the students. In this process, it also identifies a few challenge areas for both NLP researchers and tool developers.

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Teaching NLP with Bracelets and Restaurant Menus: An Interactive Workshop for Italian Students
Ludovica Pannitto | Lucia Busso | Claudia Roberta Combei | Lucio Messina | Alessio Miaschi | Gabriele Sarti | Malvina Nissim

Although Natural Language Processing is at the core of many tools young people use in their everyday life, high school curricula (in Italy) do not include any computational linguistics education. This lack of exposure makes the use of such tools less responsible than it could be, and makes choosing computational linguistics as a university degree unlikely. To raise awareness, curiosity, and longer-term interest in young people, we have developed an interactive workshop designed to illustrate the basic principles of NLP and computational linguistics to high school Italian students aged between 13 and 18 years. The workshop takes the form of a game in which participants play the role of machines needing to solve some of the most common problems a computer faces in understanding language: from voice recognition to Markov chains to syntactic parsing. Participants are guided through the workshop with the help of instructors, who present the activities and explain core concepts from computational linguistics. The workshop was presented at numerous outlets in Italy between 2019 and 2020, both face-to-face and online.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Fifteenth Workshop on Graph-Based Methods for Natural Language Processing (TextGraphs-15)

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Proceedings of the Fifteenth Workshop on Graph-Based Methods for Natural Language Processing (TextGraphs-15)
Alexander Panchenko | Fragkiskos D. Malliaros | Varvara Logacheva | Abhik Jana | Dmitry Ustalov | Peter Jansen

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Bootstrapping Large-Scale Fine-Grained Contextual Advertising Classifier from Wikipedia
Yiping Jin | Vishakha Kadam | Dittaya Wanvarie

Contextual advertising provides advertisers with the opportunity to target the context which is most relevant to their ads. The large variety of potential topics makes it very challenging to collect training documents to build a supervised classification model or compose expert-written rules in a rule-based classification system. Besides, in fine-grained classification, different categories often overlap or co-occur, making it harder to classify accurately. In this work, we propose wiki2cat, a method to tackle large-scaled fine-grained text classification by tapping on the Wikipedia category graph. The categories in the IAB taxonomy are first mapped to category nodes in the graph. Then the label is propagated across the graph to obtain a list of labeled Wikipedia documents to induce text classifiers. The method is ideal for large-scale classification problems since it does not require any manually-labeled document or hand-curated rules or keywords. The proposed method is benchmarked with various learning-based and keyword-based baselines and yields competitive performance on publicly available datasets and a new dataset containing more than 300 fine-grained categories.

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Modeling Graph Structure via Relative Position for Text Generation from Knowledge Graphs
Martin Schmitt | Leonardo F. R. Ribeiro | Philipp Dufter | Iryna Gurevych | Hinrich Schütze

We present Graformer, a novel Transformer-based encoder-decoder architecture for graph-to-text generation. With our novel graph self-attention, the encoding of a node relies on all nodes in the input graph - not only direct neighbors - facilitating the detection of global patterns. We represent the relation between two nodes as the length of the shortest path between them. Graformer learns to weight these node-node relations differently for different attention heads, thus virtually learning differently connected views of the input graph. We evaluate Graformer on two popular graph-to-text generation benchmarks, AGENDA and WebNLG, where it achieves strong performance while using many fewer parameters than other approaches.

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Entity Prediction in Knowledge Graphs with Joint Embeddings
Matthias Baumgartner | Daniele Dell’Aglio | Abraham Bernstein

Knowledge Graphs (KGs) have become increasingly popular in the recent years. However, as knowledge constantly grows and changes, it is inevitable to extend existing KGs with entities that emerged or became relevant to the scope of the KG after its creation. Research on updating KGs typically relies on extracting named entities and relations from text. However, these approaches cannot infer entities or relations that were not explicitly stated. Alternatively, embedding models exploit implicit structural regularities to predict missing relations, but cannot predict missing entities. In this article, we introduce a novel method to enrich a KG with new entities given their textual description. Our method leverages joint embedding models, hence does not require entities or relations to be named explicitly. We show that our approach can identify new concepts in a document corpus and transfer them into the KG, and we find that the performance of our method improves substantially when extended with techniques from association rule mining, text mining, and active learning.

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Hierarchical Graph Convolutional Networks for Jointly Resolving Cross-document Coreference of Entity and Event Mentions
Duy Phung | Tuan Ngo Nguyen | Thien Huu Nguyen

This paper studies the problem of cross-document event coreference resolution (CDECR) that seeks to determine if event mentions across multiple documents refer to the same real-world events. Prior work has demonstrated the benefits of the predicate-argument information and document context for resolving the coreference of event mentions. However, such information has not been captured effectively in prior work for CDECR. To address these limitations, we propose a novel deep learning model for CDECR that introduces hierarchical graph convolutional neural networks (GCN) to jointly resolve entity and event mentions. As such, sentence-level GCNs enable the encoding of important context words for event mentions and their arguments while the document-level GCN leverages the interaction structures of event mentions and arguments to compute document representations to perform CDECR. Extensive experiments are conducted to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed model.

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GENE: Global Event Network Embedding
Qi Zeng | Manling Li | Tuan Lai | Heng Ji | Mohit Bansal | Hanghang Tong

Current methods for event representation ignore related events in a corpus-level global context. For a deep and comprehensive understanding of complex events, we introduce a new task, Event Network Embedding, which aims to represent events by capturing the connections among events. We propose a novel framework, Global Event Network Embedding (GENE), that encodes the event network with a multi-view graph encoder while preserving the graph topology and node semantics. The graph encoder is trained by minimizing both structural and semantic losses. We develop a new series of structured probing tasks, and show that our approach effectively outperforms baseline models on node typing, argument role classification, and event coreference resolution.

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Learning Clause Representation from Dependency-Anchor Graph for Connective Prediction
Yanjun Gao | Ting-Hao Huang | Rebecca J. Passonneau

Semantic representation that supports the choice of an appropriate connective between pairs of clauses inherently addresses discourse coherence, which is important for tasks such as narrative understanding, argumentation, and discourse parsing. We propose a novel clause embedding method that applies graph learning to a data structure we refer to as a dependency-anchor graph. The dependency anchor graph incorporates two kinds of syntactic information, constituency structure, and dependency relations, to highlight the subject and verb phrase relation. This enhances coherence-related aspects of representation. We design a neural model to learn a semantic representation for clauses from graph convolution over latent representations of the subject and verb phrase. We evaluate our method on two new datasets: a subset of a large corpus where the source texts are published novels, and a new dataset collected from students’ essays. The results demonstrate a significant improvement over tree-based models, confirming the importance of emphasizing the subject and verb phrase. The performance gap between the two datasets illustrates the challenges of analyzing student’s written text, plus a potential evaluation task for coherence modeling and an application for suggesting revisions to students.

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WikiGraphs: A Wikipedia Text - Knowledge Graph Paired Dataset
Luyu Wang | Yujia Li | Ozlem Aslan | Oriol Vinyals

We present a new dataset of Wikipedia articles each paired with a knowledge graph, to facilitate the research in conditional text generation, graph generation and graph representation learning. Existing graph-text paired datasets typically contain small graphs and short text (1 or few sentences), thus limiting the capabilities of the models that can be learned on the data. Our new dataset WikiGraphs is collected by pairing each Wikipedia article from the established WikiText-103 benchmark (Merity et al., 2016) with a subgraph from the Freebase knowledge graph (Bollacker et al., 2008). This makes it easy to benchmark against other state-of-the-art text generative models that are capable of generating long paragraphs of coherent text. Both the graphs and the text data are of significantly larger scale compared to prior graph-text paired datasets. We present baseline graph neural network and transformer model results on our dataset for 3 tasks: graph -> text generation, graph -> text retrieval and text -> graph retrieval. We show that better conditioning on the graph provides gains in generation and retrieval quality but there is still large room for improvement.

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Selective Attention Based Graph Convolutional Networks for Aspect-Level Sentiment Classification
Xiaochen Hou | Jing Huang | Guangtao Wang | Peng Qi | Xiaodong He | Bowen Zhou

Recent work on aspect-level sentiment classification has employed Graph Convolutional Networks (GCN) over dependency trees to learn interactions between aspect terms and opinion words. In some cases, the corresponding opinion words for an aspect term cannot be reached within two hops on dependency trees, which requires more GCN layers to model. However, GCNs often achieve the best performance with two layers, and deeper GCNs do not bring any additional gain. Therefore, we design a novel selective attention based GCN model. On one hand, the proposed model enables the direct interaction between aspect terms and context words via the self-attention operation without the distance limitation on dependency trees. On the other hand, a top-k selection procedure is designed to locate opinion words by selecting k context words with the highest attention scores. We conduct experiments on several commonly used benchmark datasets and the results show that our proposed SA-GCN outperforms strong baseline models.

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Keyword Extraction Using Unsupervised Learning on the Document’s Adjacency Matrix
Eirini Papagiannopoulou | Grigorios Tsoumakas | Apostolos Papadopoulos

This work revisits the information given by the graph-of-words and its typical utilization through graph-based ranking approaches in the context of keyword extraction. Recent, well-known graph-based approaches typically employ the knowledge from word vector representations during the ranking process via popular centrality measures (e.g., PageRank) without giving the primary role to vectors’ distribution. We consider the adjacency matrix that corresponds to the graph-of-words of a target text document as the vector representation of its vocabulary. We propose the distribution-based modeling of this adjacency matrix using unsupervised (learning) algorithms. The efficacy of the distribution-based modeling approaches compared to state-of-the-art graph-based methods is confirmed by an extensive experimental study according to the F1 score. Our code is available on GitHub.

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Improving Human Text Simplification with Sentence Fusion
Max Schwarzer | Teerapaun Tanprasert | David Kauchak

The quality of fully automated text simplification systems is not good enough for use in real-world settings; instead, human simplifications are used. In this paper, we examine how to improve the cost and quality of human simplifications by leveraging crowdsourcing. We introduce a graph-based sentence fusion approach to augment human simplifications and a reranking approach to both select high quality simplifications and to allow for targeting simplifications with varying levels of simplicity. Using the Newsela dataset (Xu et al., 2015) we show consistent improvements over experts at varying simplification levels and find that the additional sentence fusion simplifications allow for simpler output than the human simplifications alone.

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Structural Realization with GGNNs
Jinman Zhao | Gerald Penn | Huan Ling

In this paper, we define an abstract task called structural realization that generates words given a prefix of words and a partial representation of a parse tree. We also present a method for solving instances of this task using a Gated Graph Neural Network (GGNN). We evaluate it with standard accuracy measures, as well as with respect to perplexity, in which its comparison to previous work on language modelling serves to quantify the information added to a lexical selection task by the presence of syntactic knowledge. That the addition of parse-tree-internal nodes to this neural model should improve the model, with respect both to accuracy and to more conventional measures such as perplexity, may seem unsurprising, but previous attempts have not met with nearly as much success. We have also learned that transverse links through the parse tree compromise the model’s accuracy at generating adjectival and nominal parts of speech.

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MG-BERT: Multi-Graph Augmented BERT for Masked Language Modeling
Parishad BehnamGhader | Hossein Zakerinia | Mahdieh Soleymani Baghshah

Pre-trained models like Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT), have recently made a big leap forward in Natural Language Processing (NLP) tasks. However, there are still some shortcomings in the Masked Language Modeling (MLM) task performed by these models. In this paper, we first introduce a multi-graph including different types of relations between words. Then, we propose Multi-Graph augmented BERT (MG-BERT) model that is based on BERT. MG-BERT embeds tokens while taking advantage of a static multi-graph containing global word co-occurrences in the text corpus beside global real-world facts about words in knowledge graphs. The proposed model also employs a dynamic sentence graph to capture local context effectively. Experimental results demonstrate that our model can considerably enhance the performance in the MLM task.

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GTN-ED: Event Detection Using Graph Transformer Networks
Sanghamitra Dutta | Liang Ma | Tanay Kumar Saha | Di Liu | Joel Tetreault | Alejandro Jaimes

Recent works show that the graph structure of sentences, generated from dependency parsers, has potential for improving event detection. However, they often only leverage the edges (dependencies) between words, and discard the dependency labels (e.g., nominal-subject), treating the underlying graph edges as homogeneous. In this work, we propose a novel framework for incorporating both dependencies and their labels using a recently proposed technique called Graph Transformer Network (GTN). We integrate GTN to leverage dependency relations on two existing homogeneous-graph-based models and demonstrate an improvement in the F1 score on the ACE dataset.

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Fine-grained General Entity Typing in German using GermaNet
Sabine Weber | Mark Steedman

Fine-grained entity typing is important to tasks like relation extraction and knowledge base construction. We find however, that fine-grained entity typing systems perform poorly on general entities (e.g. “ex-president”) as compared to named entities (e.g. “Barack Obama”). This is due to a lack of general entities in existing training data sets. We show that this problem can be mitigated by automatically generating training data from WordNets. We use a German WordNet equivalent, GermaNet, to automatically generate training data for German general entity typing. We use this data to supplement named entity data to train a neural fine-grained entity typing system. This leads to a 10% improvement in accuracy of the prediction of level 1 FIGER types for German general entities, while decreasing named entity type prediction accuracy by only 1%.

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On Geodesic Distances and Contextual Embedding Compression for Text Classification
Rishi Jha | Kai Mihata

In some memory-constrained settings like IoT devices and over-the-network data pipelines, it can be advantageous to have smaller contextual embeddings. We investigate the efficacy of projecting contextual embedding data (BERT) onto a manifold, and using nonlinear dimensionality reduction techniques to compress these embeddings. In particular, we propose a novel post-processing approach, applying a combination of Isomap and PCA. We find that the geodesic distance estimations, estimates of the shortest path on a Riemannian manifold, from Isomap’s k-Nearest Neighbors graph bolstered the performance of the compressed embeddings to be comparable to the original BERT embeddings. On one dataset, we find that despite a 12-fold dimensionality reduction, the compressed embeddings performed within 0.1% of the original BERT embeddings on a downstream classification task. In addition, we find that this approach works particularly well on tasks reliant on syntactic data, when compared with linear dimensionality reduction. These results show promise for a novel geometric approach to achieve lower dimensional text embeddings from existing transformers and pave the way for data-specific and application-specific embedding compressions.

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Semi-Supervised Joint Estimation of Word and Document Readability
Yoshinari Fujinuma | Masato Hagiwara

Readability or difficulty estimation of words and documents has been investigated independently in the literature, often assuming the existence of extensive annotated resources for the other. Motivated by our analysis showing that there is a recursive relationship between word and document difficulty, we propose to jointly estimate word and document difficulty through a graph convolutional network (GCN) in a semi-supervised fashion. Our experimental results reveal that the GCN-based method can achieve higher accuracy than strong baselines, and stays robust even with a smaller amount of labeled data.

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TextGraphs 2021 Shared Task on Multi-Hop Inference for Explanation Regeneration
Mokanarangan Thayaparan | Marco Valentino | Peter Jansen | Dmitry Ustalov

The Shared Task on Multi-Hop Inference for Explanation Regeneration asks participants to compose large multi-hop explanations to questions by assembling large chains of facts from a supporting knowledge base. While previous editions of this shared task aimed to evaluate explanatory completeness – finding a set of facts that form a complete inference chain, without gaps, to arrive from question to correct answer, this 2021 instantiation concentrates on the subtask of determining relevance in large multi-hop explanations. To this end, this edition of the shared task makes use of a large set of approximately 250k manual explanatory relevancy ratings that augment the 2020 shared task data. In this summary paper, we describe the details of the explanation regeneration task, the evaluation data, and the participating systems. Additionally, we perform a detailed analysis of participating systems, evaluating various aspects involved in the multi-hop inference process. The best performing system achieved an NDCG of 0.82 on this challenging task, substantially increasing performance over baseline methods by 32%, while also leaving significant room for future improvement.

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DeepBlueAI at TextGraphs 2021 Shared Task: Treating Multi-Hop Inference Explanation Regeneration as A Ranking Problem
Chunguang Pan | Bingyan Song | Zhipeng Luo

This paper describes the winning system for TextGraphs 2021 shared task: Multi-hop inference explanation regeneration. Given a question and its corresponding correct answer, this task aims to select the facts that can explain why the answer is correct for that question and answering (QA) from a large knowledge base. To address this problem and accelerate training as well, our strategy includes two steps. First, fine-tuning pre-trained language models (PLMs) with triplet loss to recall top-K relevant facts for each question and answer pair. Then, adopting the same architecture to train the re-ranking model to rank the top-K candidates. To further improve the performance, we average the results from models based on different PLMs (e.g., RoBERTa) and different parameter settings to make the final predictions. The official evaluation shows that, our system can outperform the second best system by 4.93 points, which proves the effectiveness of our system. Our code has been open source, address is https://github.com/DeepBlueAI/TextGraphs-15

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A Three-step Method for Multi-Hop Inference Explanation Regeneration
Yuejia Xiang | Yunyan Zhang | Xiaoming Shi | Bo Liu | Wandi Xu | Xi Chen

Multi-hop inference for explanation generation is to combine two or more facts to make an inference. The task focuses on generating explanations for elementary science questions. In the task, the relevance between the explanations and the QA pairs is of vital importance. To address the task, a three-step framework is proposed. Firstly, vector distance between two texts is utilized to recall the top-K relevant explanations for each question, reducing the calculation consumption. Then, a selection module is employed to choose those most relative facts in an autoregressive manner, giving a preliminary order for the retrieved facts. Thirdly, we adopt a re-ranking module to re-rank the retrieved candidate explanations with relevance between each fact and the QA pairs. Experimental results illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed framework with an improvement of 39.78% in NDCG over the official baseline.

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Textgraphs-15 Shared Task System Description : Multi-Hop Inference Explanation Regeneration by Matching Expert Ratings
Sureshkumar Vivek Kalyan | Sam Witteveen | Martin Andrews

Creating explanations for answers to science questions is a challenging task that requires multi-hop inference over a large set of fact sentences. This year, to refocus the Textgraphs Shared Task on the problem of gathering relevant statements (rather than solely finding a single ‘correct path’), the WorldTree dataset was augmented with expert ratings of ‘relevance’ of statements to each overall explanation. Our system, which achieved second place on the Shared Task leaderboard, combines initial statement retrieval; language models trained to predict the relevance scores; and ensembling of a number of the resulting rankings. Our code implementation is made available at https://github.com/mdda/worldtree_corpus/tree/textgraphs_2021
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bib (full) Proceedings of the First Workshop on Trustworthy Natural Language Processing

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Proceedings of the First Workshop on Trustworthy Natural Language Processing
Yada Pruksachatkun | Anil Ramakrishna | Kai-Wei Chang | Satyapriya Krishna | Jwala Dhamala | Tanaya Guha | Xiang Ren

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Interpretability Rules: Jointly Bootstrapping a Neural Relation Extractorwith an Explanation Decoder
Zheng Tang | Mihai Surdeanu

We introduce a method that transforms a rule-based relation extraction (RE) classifier into a neural one such that both interpretability and performance are achieved. Our approach jointly trains a RE classifier with a decoder that generates explanations for these extractions, using as sole supervision a set of rules that match these relations. Our evaluation on the TACRED dataset shows that our neural RE classifier outperforms the rule-based one we started from by 9 F1 points; our decoder generates explanations with a high BLEU score of over 90%; and, the joint learning improves the performance of both the classifier and decoder.

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Measuring Biases of Word Embeddings: What Similarity Measures and Descriptive Statistics to Use?
Hossein Azarpanah | Mohsen Farhadloo

Word embeddings are widely used in Natural Language Processing (NLP) for a vast range of applications. However, it has been consistently proven that these embeddings reflect the same human biases that exist in the data used to train them. Most of the introduced bias indicators to reveal word embeddings’ bias are average-based indicators based on the cosine similarity measure. In this study, we examine the impacts of different similarity measures as well as other descriptive techniques than averaging in measuring the biases of contextual and non-contextual word embeddings. We show that the extent of revealed biases in word embeddings depends on the descriptive statistics and similarity measures used to measure the bias. We found that over the ten categories of word embedding association tests, Mahalanobis distance reveals the smallest bias, and Euclidean distance reveals the largest bias in word embeddings. In addition, the contextual models reveal less severe biases than the non-contextual word embedding models.

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Private Release of Text Embedding Vectors
Oluwaseyi Feyisetan | Shiva Kasiviswanathan

Ensuring strong theoretical privacy guarantees on text data is a challenging problem which is usually attained at the expense of utility. However, to improve the practicality of privacy preserving text analyses, it is essential to design algorithms that better optimize this tradeoff. To address this challenge, we propose a release mechanism that takes any (text) embedding vector as input and releases a corresponding private vector. The mechanism satisfies an extension of differential privacy to metric spaces. Our idea based on first randomly projecting the vectors to a lower-dimensional space and then adding noise in this projected space generates private vectors that achieve strong theoretical guarantees on its utility. We support our theoretical proofs with empirical experiments on multiple word embedding models and NLP datasets, achieving in some cases more than 10% gains over the existing state-of-the-art privatization techniques.

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Accountable Error Characterization
Amita Misra | Zhe Liu | Jalal Mahmud

Customers of machine learning systems demand accountability from the companies employing these algorithms for various prediction tasks. Accountability requires understanding of system limit and condition of erroneous predictions, as customers are often interested in understanding the incorrect predictions, and model developers are absorbed in finding methods that can be used to get incremental improvements to an existing system. Therefore, we propose an accountable error characterization method, AEC, to understand when and where errors occur within the existing black-box models. AEC, as constructed with human-understandable linguistic features, allows the model developers to automatically identify the main sources of errors for a given classification system. It can also be used to sample for the set of most informative input points for a next round of training. We perform error detection for a sentiment analysis task using AEC as a case study. Our results on the sample sentiment task show that AEC is able to characterize erroneous predictions into human understandable categories and also achieves promising results on selecting erroneous samples when compared with the uncertainty-based sampling.

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xER: An Explainable Model for Entity Resolution using an Efficient Solution for the Clique Partitioning Problem
Samhita Vadrevu | Rakesh Nagi | JinJun Xiong | Wen-mei Hwu

In this paper, we propose a global, self- explainable solution to solve a prominent NLP problem: Entity Resolution (ER). We formu- late ER as a graph partitioning problem. Every mention of a real-world entity is represented by a node in the graph, and the pairwise sim- ilarity scores between the mentions are used to associate these nodes to exactly one clique, which represents a real-world entity in the ER domain. In this paper, we use Clique Partition- ing Problem (CPP), which is an Integer Pro- gram (IP) to formulate ER as a graph partition- ing problem and then highlight the explainable nature of this method. Since CPP is NP-Hard, we introduce an efficient solution procedure, the xER algorithm, to solve CPP as a combi- nation of finding maximal cliques in the graph and then performing generalized set packing using a novel formulation. We discuss the advantages of using xER over the traditional methods and provide the computational exper- iments and results of applying this method to ER data sets.

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Gender Bias in Natural Language Processing Across Human Languages
Abigail Matthews | Isabella Grasso | Christopher Mahoney | Yan Chen | Esma Wali | Thomas Middleton | Mariama Njie | Jeanna Matthews

Natural Language Processing (NLP) systems are at the heart of many critical automated decision-making systems making crucial recommendations about our future world. Gender bias in NLP has been well studied in English, but has been less studied in other languages. In this paper, a team including speakers of 9 languages - Chinese, Spanish, English, Arabic, German, French, Farsi, Urdu, and Wolof - reports and analyzes measurements of gender bias in the Wikipedia corpora for these 9 languages. We develop extensions to profession-level and corpus-level gender bias metric calculations originally designed for English and apply them to 8 other languages, including languages that have grammatically gendered nouns including different feminine, masculine, and neuter profession words. We discuss future work that would benefit immensely from a computational linguistics perspective.

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Interpreting Text Classifiers by Learning Context-sensitive Influence of Words
Sawan Kumar | Kalpit Dixit | Kashif Shah

Many existing approaches for interpreting text classification models focus on providing importance scores for parts of the input text, such as words, but without a way to test or improve the interpretation method itself. This has the effect of compounding the problem of understanding or building trust in the model, with the interpretation method itself adding to the opacity of the model. Further, importance scores on individual examples are usually not enough to provide a sufficient picture of model behavior. To address these concerns, we propose MOXIE (MOdeling conteXt-sensitive InfluencE of words) with an aim to enable a richer interface for a user to interact with the model being interpreted and to produce testable predictions. In particular, we aim to make predictions for importance scores, counterfactuals and learned biases with MOXIE. In addition, with a global learning objective, MOXIE provides a clear path for testing and improving itself. We evaluate the reliability and efficiency of MOXIE on the task of sentiment analysis.

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Towards Benchmarking the Utility of Explanations for Model Debugging
Maximilian Idahl | Lijun Lyu | Ujwal Gadiraju | Avishek Anand

Post-hoc explanation methods are an important class of approaches that help understand the rationale underlying a trained model’s decision. But how useful are they for an end-user towards accomplishing a given task? In this vision paper, we argue the need for a benchmark to facilitate evaluations of the utility of post-hoc explanation methods. As a first step to this end, we enumerate desirable properties that such a benchmark should possess for the task of debugging text classifiers. Additionally, we highlight that such a benchmark facilitates not only assessing the effectiveness of explanations but also their efficiency.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Understanding Implicit and Underspecified Language

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Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Understanding Implicit and Underspecified Language
Michael Roth | Reut Tsarfaty | Yoav Goldberg

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Let’s be explicit about that: Distant supervision for implicit discourse relation classification via connective prediction
Murathan Kurfalı | Robert Östling

In implicit discourse relation classification, we want to predict the relation between adjacent sentences in the absence of any overt discourse connectives. This is challenging even for humans, leading to shortage of annotated data, a fact that makes the task even more difficult for supervised machine learning approaches. In the current study, we perform implicit discourse relation classification without relying on any labeled implicit relation. We sidestep the lack of data through explicitation of implicit relations to reduce the task to two sub-problems: language modeling and explicit discourse relation classification, a much easier problem. Our experimental results show that this method can even marginally outperform the state-of-the-art, in spite of being much simpler than alternative models of comparable performance. Moreover, we show that the achieved performance is robust across domains as suggested by the zero-shot experiments on a completely different domain. This indicates that recent advances in language modeling have made language models sufficiently good at capturing inter-sentence relations without the help of explicit discourse markers.

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Implicit Phenomena in Short-answer Scoring Data
Marie Bexte | Andrea Horbach | Torsten Zesch

Short-answer scoring is the task of assessing the correctness of a short text given as response to a question that can come from a variety of educational scenarios. As only content, not form, is important, the exact wording including the explicitness of an answer should not matter. However, many state-of-the-art scoring models heavily rely on lexical information, be it word embeddings in a neural network or n-grams in an SVM. Thus, the exact wording of an answer might very well make a difference. We therefore quantify to what extent implicit language phenomena occur in short answer datasets and examine the influence they have on automatic scoring performance. We find that the level of implicitness depends on the individual question, and that some phenomena are very frequent. Resolving implicit wording to explicit formulations indeed tends to improve automatic scoring performance.

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Evaluation Guidelines to Deal with Implicit Phenomena to Assess Factuality in Data-to-Text Generation
Roy Eisenstadt | Michael Elhadad

Data-to-text generation systems are trained on large datasets, such as WebNLG, Ro-toWire, E2E or DART. Beyond traditional token-overlap evaluation metrics (BLEU or METEOR), a key concern faced by recent generators is to control the factuality of the generated text with respect to the input data specification. We report on our experience when developing an automatic factuality evaluation system for data-to-text generation that we are testing on WebNLG and E2E data. We aim to prepare gold data annotated manually to identify cases where the text communicates more information than is warranted based on the in-put data (extra) or fails to communicate data that is part of the input (missing). While analyzing reference (data, text) samples, we encountered a range of systematic uncertainties that are related to cases on implicit phenomena in text, and the nature of non-linguistic knowledge we expect to be involved when assessing factuality. We derive from our experience a set of evaluation guidelines to reach high inter-annotator agreement on such cases.

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UnImplicit Shared Task Report: Detecting Clarification Requirements in Instructional Text
Michael Roth | Talita Anthonio

This paper describes the data, task setup, and results of the shared task at the First Workshop on Understanding Implicit and Underspecified Language (UnImplicit). The task requires computational models to predict whether a sentence contains aspects of meaning that are contextually unspecified and thus require clarification. Two teams participated and the best scoring system achieved an accuracy of 68%.

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Improvements and Extensions on Metaphor Detection
Weicheng Ma | Ruibo Liu | Lili Wang | Soroush Vosoughi

Metaphors are ubiquitous in human language. The metaphor detection task (MD) aims at detecting and interpreting metaphors from written language, which is crucial in natural language understanding (NLU) research. In this paper, we introduce a pre-trained Transformer-based model into MD. Our model outperforms the previous state-of-the-art models by large margins in our evaluations, with relative improvements on the F-1 score from 5.33% to 28.39%. Second, we extend MD to a classification task about the metaphoricity of an entire piece of text to make MD applicable in more general NLU scenes. Finally, we clean up the improper or outdated annotations in one of the MD benchmark datasets and re-benchmark it with our Transformer-based model. This approach could be applied to other existing MD datasets as well, since the metaphoricity annotations in these benchmark datasets may be outdated. Future research efforts are also necessary to build an up-to-date and well-annotated dataset consisting of longer and more complex texts.

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Human-Model Divergence in the Handling of Vagueness
Elias Stengel-Eskin | Jimena Guallar-Blasco | Benjamin Van Durme

While aggregate performance metrics can generate valuable insights at a large scale, their dominance means more complex and nuanced language phenomena, such as vagueness, may be overlooked. Focusing on vague terms (e.g. sunny, cloudy, young, etc.) we inspect the behavior of visually grounded and text-only models, finding systematic divergences from human judgments even when a model’s overall performance is high. To help explain this disparity, we identify two assumptions made by the datasets and models examined and, guided by the philosophy of vagueness, isolate cases where they do not hold.

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A Mention-Based System for Revision Requirements Detection
Ahmed Ruby | Christian Hardmeier | Sara Stymne

Exploring aspects of sentential meaning that are implicit or underspecified in context is important for sentence understanding. In this paper, we propose a novel architecture based on mentions for revision requirements detection. The goal is to improve understandability, addressing some types of revisions, especially for the Replaced Pronoun type. We show that our mention-based system can predict replaced pronouns well on the mention-level. However, our combined sentence-level system does not improve on the sentence-level BERT baseline. We also present additional contrastive systems, and show results for each type of edit.

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TTCB System Description to a Shared Task on Implicit and Underspecified Language 2021
Peratham Wiriyathammabhum

In this report, we describe our transformers for text classification baseline (TTCB) submissions to a shared task on implicit and underspecified language 2021. We cast the task of predicting revision requirements in collaboratively edited instructions as text classification. We considered transformer-based models which are the current state-of-the-art methods for text classification. We explored different training schemes, loss functions, and data augmentations. Our best result of 68.45% test accuracy (68.84% validation accuracy), however, consists of an XLNet model with a linear annealing scheduler and a cross-entropy loss. We do not observe any significant gain on any validation metric based on our various design choices except the MiniLM which has a higher validation F1 score and is faster to train by a half but also a lower validation accuracy score.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop on NLP for Similar Languages, Varieties and Dialects

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Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop on NLP for Similar Languages, Varieties and Dialects
Marcos Zampieri | Preslav Nakov | Nikola Ljubešić | Jörg Tiedemann | Yves Scherrer | Tommi Jauhiainen

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Findings of the VarDial Evaluation Campaign 2021
Bharathi Raja Chakravarthi | Gaman Mihaela | Radu Tudor Ionescu | Heidi Jauhiainen | Tommi Jauhiainen | Krister Lindén | Nikola Ljubešić | Niko Partanen | Ruba Priyadharshini | Christoph Purschke | Eswari Rajagopal | Yves Scherrer | Marcos Zampieri

This paper describes the results of the shared tasks organized as part of the VarDial Evaluation Campaign 2021. The campaign was part of the eighth workshop on Natural Language Processing (NLP) for Similar Languages, Varieties and Dialects (VarDial), co-located with EACL 2021. Four separate shared tasks were included this year: Dravidian Language Identification (DLI), Romanian Dialect Identification (RDI), Social Media Variety Geolocation (SMG), and Uralic Language Identification (ULI). DLI was organized for the first time and the other three continued a series of tasks from previous evaluation campaigns.

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Hierarchical Transformer for Multilingual Machine Translation
Albina Khusainova | Adil Khan | Adín Ramírez Rivera | Vitaly Romanov

The choice of parameter sharing strategy in multilingual machine translation models determines how optimally parameter space is used and hence, directly influences ultimate translation quality. Inspired by linguistic trees that show the degree of relatedness between different languages, the new general approach to parameter sharing in multilingual machine translation was suggested recently. The main idea is to use these expert language hierarchies as a basis for multilingual architecture: the closer two languages are, the more parameters they share. In this work, we test this idea using the Transformer architecture and show that despite the success in previous work there are problems inherent to training such hierarchical models. We demonstrate that in case of carefully chosen training strategy the hierarchical architecture can outperform bilingual models and multilingual models with full parameter sharing.

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Regression Analysis of Lexical and Morpho-Syntactic Properties of Kiezdeutsch
Diego Frassinelli | Gabriella Lapesa | Reem Alatrash | Dominik Schlechtweg | Sabine Schulte im Walde

Kiezdeutsch is a variety of German predominantly spoken by teenagers from multi-ethnic urban neighborhoods in casual conversations with their peers. In recent years, the popularity of Kiezdeutsch has increased among young people, independently of their socio-economic origin, and has spread in social media, too. While previous studies have extensively investigated this language variety from a linguistic and qualitative perspective, not much has been done from a quantitative point of view. We perform the first large-scale data-driven analysis of the lexical and morpho-syntactic properties of Kiezdeutsch in comparison with standard German. At the level of results, we confirm predictions of previous qualitative analyses and integrate them with further observations on specific linguistic phenomena such as slang and self-centered speaker attitude. At the methodological level, we provide logistic regression as a framework to perform bottom-up feature selection in order to quantify differences across language varieties.

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Representations of Language Varieties Are Reliable Given Corpus Similarity Measures
Jonathan Dunn

This paper measures similarity both within and between 84 language varieties across nine languages. These corpora are drawn from digital sources (the web and tweets), allowing us to evaluate whether such geo-referenced corpora are reliable for modelling linguistic variation. The basic idea is that, if each source adequately represents a single underlying language variety, then the similarity between these sources should be stable across all languages and countries. The paper shows that there is a consistent agreement between these sources using frequency-based corpus similarity measures. This provides further evidence that digital geo-referenced corpora consistently represent local language varieties.

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Whit’s the Richt Pairt o Speech: PoS tagging for Scots
Harm Lameris | Sara Stymne

In this paper we explore PoS tagging for the Scots language. Scots is spoken in Scotland and Northern Ireland, and is closely related to English. As no linguistically annotated Scots data were available, we manually PoS tagged a small set that is used for evaluation and training. We use English as a transfer language to examine zero-shot transfer and transfer learning methods. We find that training on a very small amount of Scots data was superior to zero-shot transfer from English. Combining the Scots and English data led to further improvements, with a concatenation method giving the best results. We also compared the use of two different English treebanks and found that a treebank containing web data was superior in the zero-shot setting, while it was outperformed by a treebank containing a mix of genres when combined with Scots data.

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Efficient Unsupervised NMT for Related Languages with Cross-Lingual Language Models and Fidelity Objectives
Rami Aly | Andrew Caines | Paula Buttery

The most successful approach to Neural Machine Translation (NMT) when only monolingual training data is available, called unsupervised machine translation, is based on back-translation where noisy translations are generated to turn the task into a supervised one. However, back-translation is computationally very expensive and inefficient. This work explores a novel, efficient approach to unsupervised NMT. A transformer, initialized with cross-lingual language model weights, is fine-tuned exclusively on monolingual data of the target language by jointly learning on a paraphrasing and denoising autoencoder objective. Experiments are conducted on WMT datasets for German-English, French-English, and Romanian-English. Results are competitive to strong baseline unsupervised NMT models, especially for closely related source languages (German) compared to more distant ones (Romanian, French), while requiring about a magnitude less training time.

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Fine-tuning Distributional Semantic Models for Closely-Related Languages
Kushagra Bhatia | Divyanshu Aggarwal | Ashwini Vaidya

In this paper we compare the performance of three models: SGNS (skip-gram negative sampling) and augmented versions of SVD (singular value decomposition) and PPMI (Positive Pointwise Mutual Information) on a word similarity task. We particularly focus on the role of hyperparameter tuning for Hindi based on recommendations made in previous work (on English). Our results show that there are language specific preferences for these hyperparameters. We extend the best settings for Hindi to a set of related languages: Punjabi, Gujarati and Marathi with favourable results. We also find that a suitably tuned SVD model outperforms SGNS for most of our languages and is also more robust in a low-resource setting.

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Discriminating Between Similar Nordic Languages
René Haas | Leon Derczynski

Automatic language identification is a challenging problem. Discriminating between closely related languages is especially difficult. This paper presents a machine learning approach for automatic language identification for the Nordic languages, which often suffer miscategorisation by existing state-of-the-art tools. Concretely we will focus on discrimination between six Nordic languages: Danish, Swedish, Norwegian (Nynorsk), Norwegian (Bokmål), Faroese and Icelandic.

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Naive Bayes-based Experiments in Romanian Dialect Identification
Tommi Jauhiainen | Heidi Jauhiainen | Krister Lindén

This article describes the experiments and systems developed by the SUKI team for the second edition of the Romanian Dialect Identification (RDI) shared task which was organized as part of the 2021 VarDial Evaluation Campaign. We submitted two runs to the shared task and our second submission was the overall best submission by a noticeable margin. Our best submission used a character n-gram based naive Bayes classifier with adaptive language models. We describe our experiments on the development set leading to both submissions.

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UnibucKernel: Geolocating Swiss German Jodels Using Ensemble Learning
Gaman Mihaela | Sebastian Cojocariu | Radu Tudor Ionescu

In this work, we describe our approach addressing the Social Media Variety Geolocation task featured in the 2021 VarDial Evaluation Campaign. We focus on the second subtask, which is based on a data set formed of approximately 30 thousand Swiss German Jodels. The dialect identification task is about accurately predicting the latitude and longitude of test samples. We frame the task as a double regression problem, employing an XGBoost meta-learner with the combined power of a variety of machine learning approaches to predict both latitude and longitude. The models included in our ensemble range from simple regression techniques, such as Support Vector Regression, to deep neural models, such as a hybrid neural network and a neural transformer. To minimize the prediction error, we approach the problem from a few different perspectives and consider various types of features, from low-level character n-grams to high-level BERT embeddings. The XGBoost ensemble resulted from combining the power of the aforementioned methods achieves a median distance of 23.6 km on the test data, which places us on the third place in the ranking, at a difference of 6.05 km and 2.9 km from the submissions on the first and second places, respectively.

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Optimizing a Supervised Classifier for a Difficult Language Identification Problem
Yves Bestgen

This paper describes the system developed by the Laboratoire d’analyse statistique des textes for the Dravidian Language Identification (DLI) shared task of VarDial 2021. This task is particularly difficult because the materials consists of short YouTube comments, written in Roman script, from three closely related Dravidian languages, and a fourth category consisting of several other languages in varying proportions, all mixed with English. The proposed system is made up of a logistic regression model which uses as only features n-grams of characters with a maximum length of 5. After its optimization both in terms of the feature weighting and the classifier parameters, it ranked first in the challenge. The additional analyses carried out underline the importance of optimization, especially when the measure of effectiveness is the Macro-F1.

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Comparing the Performance of CNNs and Shallow Models for Language Identification
Andrea Ceolin

In this work we compare the performance of convolutional neural networks and shallow models on three out of the four language identification shared tasks proposed in the VarDial Evaluation Campaign 2021. In our experiments, convolutional neural networks and shallow models yielded comparable performance in the Romanian Dialect Identification (RDI) and the Dravidian Language Identification (DLI) shared tasks, after the training data was augmented, while an ensemble of support vector machines and Naïve Bayes models was the best performing model in the Uralic Language Identification (ULI) task. While the deep learning models did not achieve state-of-the-art performance at the tasks and tended to overfit the data, the ensemble method was one of two methods that beat the existing baseline for the first track of the ULI shared task.

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Dialect Identification through Adversarial Learning and Knowledge Distillation on Romanian BERT
George-Eduard Zaharia | Andrei-Marius Avram | Dumitru-Clementin Cercel | Traian Rebedea

Dialect identification is a task with applicability in a vast array of domains, ranging from automatic speech recognition to opinion mining. This work presents our architectures used for the VarDial 2021 Romanian Dialect Identification subtask. We introduced a series of solutions based on Romanian or multilingual Transformers, as well as adversarial training techniques. At the same time, we experimented with a knowledge distillation tool in order to check whether a smaller model can maintain the performance of our best approach. Our best solution managed to obtain a weighted F1-score of 0.7324, allowing us to obtain the 2nd place on the leaderboard.

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Comparing Approaches to Dravidian Language Identification
Tommi Jauhiainen | Tharindu Ranasinghe | Marcos Zampieri

This paper describes the submissions by team HWR to the Dravidian Language Identification (DLI) shared task organized at VarDial 2021 workshop. The DLI training set includes 16,674 YouTube comments written in Roman script containing code-mixed text with English and one of the three South Dravidian languages: Kannada, Malayalam, and Tamil. We submitted results generated using two models, a Naive Bayes classifier with adaptive language models, which has shown to obtain competitive performance in many language and dialect identification tasks, and a transformer-based model which is widely regarded as the state-of-the-art in a number of NLP tasks. Our first submission was sent in the closed submission track using only the training set provided by the shared task organisers, whereas the second submission is considered to be open as it used a pretrained model trained with external data. Our team attained shared second position in the shared task with the submission based on Naive Bayes. Our results reinforce the idea that deep learning methods are not as competitive in language identification related tasks as they are in many other text classification tasks.

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N-gram and Neural Models for Uralic Language Identification: NRC at VarDial 2021
Gabriel Bernier-Colborne | Serge Leger | Cyril Goutte

We describe the systems developed by the National Research Council Canada for the Uralic language identification shared task at the 2021 VarDial evaluation campaign. We evaluated two different approaches to this task: a probabilistic classifier exploiting only character 5-grams as features, and a character-based neural network pre-trained through self-supervision, then fine-tuned on the language identification task. The former method turned out to perform better, which casts doubt on the usefulness of deep learning methods for language identification, where they have yet to convincingly and consistently outperform simpler and less costly classification algorithms exploiting n-gram features.

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Social Media Variety Geolocation with geoBERT
Yves Scherrer | Nikola Ljubešić

This paper describes the Helsinki–Ljubljana contribution to the VarDial 2021 shared task on social media variety geolocation. Following our successful participation at VarDial 2020, we again propose constrained and unconstrained systems based on the BERT architecture. In this paper, we report experiments with different tokenization settings and different pre-trained models, and we contrast our parameter-free regression approach with various classification schemes proposed by other participants at VarDial 2020. Both the code and the best-performing pre-trained models are made freely available.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Sixth Arabic Natural Language Processing Workshop

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Proceedings of the Sixth Arabic Natural Language Processing Workshop
Nizar Habash | Houda Bouamor | Hazem Hajj | Walid Magdy | Wajdi Zaghouani | Fethi Bougares | Nadi Tomeh | Ibrahim Abu Farha | Samia Touileb

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QADI: Arabic Dialect Identification in the Wild
Ahmed Abdelali | Hamdy Mubarak | Younes Samih | Sabit Hassan | Kareem Darwish

Proper dialect identification is important for a variety of Arabic NLP applications. In this paper, we present a method for rapidly constructing a tweet dataset containing a wide range of country-level Arabic dialects —covering 18 different countries in the Middle East and North Africa region. Our method relies on applying multiple filters to identify users who belong to different countries based on their account descriptions and to eliminate tweets that either write mainly in Modern Standard Arabic or mostly use vulgar language. The resultant dataset contains 540k tweets from 2,525 users who are evenly distributed across 18 Arab countries. Using intrinsic evaluation, we show that the labels of a set of randomly selected tweets are 91.5% accurate. For extrinsic evaluation, we are able to build effective country level dialect identification on tweets with a macro-averaged F1-score of 60.6% across 18 classes.

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DiaLex: A Benchmark for Evaluating Multidialectal Arabic Word Embeddings
Muhammad Abdul-Mageed | Shady Elbassuoni | Jad Doughman | AbdelRahim Elmadany | El Moatez Billah Nagoudi | Yorgo Zoughby | Ahmad Shaher | Iskander Gaba | Ahmed Helal | Mohammed El-Razzaz

Word embeddings are a core component of modern natural language processing systems, making the ability to thoroughly evaluate them a vital task. We describe DiaLex, a benchmark for intrinsic evaluation of dialectal Arabic word embeddings. DiaLex covers five important Arabic dialects: Algerian, Egyptian, Lebanese, Syrian, and Tunisian. Across these dialects, DiaLex provides a testbank for six syntactic and semantic relations, namely male to female, singular to dual, singular to plural, antonym, comparative, and genitive to past tense. DiaLex thus consists of a collection of word pairs representing each of the six relations in each of the five dialects. To demonstrate the utility of DiaLex, we use it to evaluate a set of existing and new Arabic word embeddings that we developed. Beyond evaluation of word embeddings, DiaLex supports efforts to integrate dialects into the Arabic language curriculum. It can be easily translated into Modern Standard Arabic and English, which can be useful for evaluating word translation. Our benchmark, evaluation code, and new word embedding models will be publicly available.

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Benchmarking Transformer-based Language Models for Arabic Sentiment and Sarcasm Detection
Ibrahim Abu Farha | Walid Magdy

The introduction of transformer-based language models has been a revolutionary step for natural language processing (NLP) research. These models, such as BERT, GPT and ELECTRA, led to state-of-the-art performance in many NLP tasks. Most of these models were initially developed for English and other languages followed later. Recently, several Arabic-specific models started emerging. However, there are limited direct comparisons between these models. In this paper, we evaluate the performance of 24 of these models on Arabic sentiment and sarcasm detection. Our results show that the models achieving the best performance are those that are trained on only Arabic data, including dialectal Arabic, and use a larger number of parameters, such as the recently released MARBERT. However, we noticed that AraELECTRA is one of the top performing models while being much more efficient in its computational cost. Finally, the experiments on AraGPT2 variants showed low performance compared to BERT models, which indicates that it might not be suitable for classification tasks.

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What does BERT Learn from Arabic Machine Reading Comprehension Datasets?
Eman Albilali | Nora Altwairesh | Manar Hosny

In machine reading comprehension tasks, a model must extract an answer from the available context given a question and a passage. Recently, transformer-based pre-trained language models have achieved state-of-the-art performance in several natural language processing tasks. However, it is unclear whether such performance reflects true language understanding. In this paper, we propose adversarial examples to probe an Arabic pre-trained language model (AraBERT), leading to a significant performance drop over four Arabic machine reading comprehension datasets. We present a layer-wise analysis for the transformer’s hidden states to offer insights into how AraBERT reasons to derive an answer. The experiments indicate that AraBERT relies on superficial cues and keyword matching rather than text understanding. Furthermore, hidden state visualization demonstrates that prediction errors can be recognized from vector representations in earlier layers.

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Kawarith: an Arabic Twitter Corpus for Crisis Events
Alaa Alharbi | Mark Lee

Social media (SM) platforms such as Twitter provide large quantities of real-time data that can be leveraged during mass emergencies. Developing tools to support crisis-affected communities requires available datasets, which often do not exist for low resource languages. This paper introduces Kawarith a multi-dialect Arabic Twitter corpus for crisis events, comprising more than a million Arabic tweets collected during 22 crises that occurred between 2018 and 2020 and involved several types of hazard. Exploration of this content revealed the most discussed topics and information types, and the paper presents a labelled dataset from seven emergency events that serves as a gold standard for several tasks in crisis informatics research. Using annotated data from the same event, a BERT model is fine-tuned to classify tweets into different categories in the multi- label setting. Results show that BERT-based models yield good performance on this task even with small amounts of task-specific training data.

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Arabic Compact Language Modelling for Resource Limited Devices
Zaid Alyafeai | Irfan Ahmad

Natural language modelling has gained a lot of interest recently. The current state-of-the-art results are achieved by first training a very large language model and then fine-tuning it on multiple tasks. However, there is little work on smaller more compact language models for resource-limited devices or applications. Not to mention, how to efficiently train such models for a low-resource language like Arabic. In this paper, we investigate how such models can be trained in a compact way for Arabic. We also show how distillation and quantization can be applied to create even smaller models. Our experiments show that our largest model which is 2x smaller than the baseline can achieve better results on multiple tasks with 2x less data for pretraining.

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Arabic Emoji Sentiment Lexicon (Arab-ESL): A Comparison between Arabic and European Emoji Sentiment Lexicons
Shatha Ali A. Hakami | Robert Hendley | Phillip Smith

Emoji (the popular digital pictograms) are sometimes seen as a new kind of artificial and universally usable and consistent writing code. In spite of their assumed universality, there is some evidence that the sense of an emoji, specifically in regard to sentiment, may change from language to language and culture to culture. This paper investigates whether contextual emoji sentiment analysis is consistent across Arabic and European languages. To conduct this investigation, we, first, created the Arabic emoji sentiment lexicon (Arab-ESL). Then, we exploited an existing European emoji sentiment lexicon to compare the sentiment conveyed in each of the two families of language and culture (Arabic and European). The results show that the pairwise correlation between the two lexicons is consistent for emoji that represent, for instance, hearts, facial expressions, and body language. However, for a subset of emoji (those that represent objects, nature, symbols, and some human activities), there are large differences in the sentiment conveyed. More interestingly, an extremely high level of inconsistency has been shown with food emoji.

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ArCOV19-Rumors: Arabic COVID-19 Twitter Dataset for Misinformation Detection
Fatima Haouari | Maram Hasanain | Reem Suwaileh | Tamer Elsayed

In this paper we introduce ArCOV19-Rumors, an Arabic COVID-19 Twitter dataset for misinformation detection composed of tweets containing claims from 27th January till the end of April 2020. We collected 138 verified claims, mostly from popular fact-checking websites, and identified 9.4K relevant tweets to those claims. Tweets were manually-annotated by veracity to support research on misinformation detection, which is one of the major problems faced during a pandemic. ArCOV19-Rumors supports two levels of misinformation detection over Twitter: verifying free-text claims (called claim-level verification) and verifying claims expressed in tweets (called tweet-level verification). Our dataset covers, in addition to health, claims related to other topical categories that were influenced by COVID-19, namely, social, politics, sports, entertainment, and religious. Moreover, we present benchmarking results for tweet-level verification on the dataset. We experimented with SOTA models of versatile approaches that either exploit content, user profiles features, temporal features and propagation structure of the conversational threads for tweet verification.

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ArCOV-19: The First Arabic COVID-19 Twitter Dataset with Propagation Networks
Fatima Haouari | Maram Hasanain | Reem Suwaileh | Tamer Elsayed

In this paper, we present ArCOV-19, an Arabic COVID-19 Twitter dataset that spans one year, covering the period from 27th of January 2020 till 31st of January 2021. ArCOV-19 is the first publicly-available Arabic Twitter dataset covering COVID-19 pandemic that includes about 2.7M tweets alongside the propagation networks of the most-popular subset of them (i.e., most-retweeted and -liked). The propagation networks include both retweetsand conversational threads (i.e., threads of replies). ArCOV-19 is designed to enable research under several domains including natural language processing, information retrieval, and social computing. Preliminary analysis shows that ArCOV-19 captures rising discussions associated with the first reported cases of the disease as they appeared in the Arab world. In addition to the source tweets and the propagation networks, we also release the search queries and the language-independent crawler used to collect the tweets to encourage the curation of similar datasets.

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The Interplay of Variant, Size, and Task Type in Arabic Pre-trained Language Models
Go Inoue | Bashar Alhafni | Nurpeiis Baimukan | Houda Bouamor | Nizar Habash

In this paper, we explore the effects of language variants, data sizes, and fine-tuning task types in Arabic pre-trained language models. To do so, we build three pre-trained language models across three variants of Arabic: Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), dialectal Arabic, and classical Arabic, in addition to a fourth language model which is pre-trained on a mix of the three. We also examine the importance of pre-training data size by building additional models that are pre-trained on a scaled-down set of the MSA variant. We compare our different models to each other, as well as to eight publicly available models by fine-tuning them on five NLP tasks spanning 12 datasets. Our results suggest that the variant proximity of pre-training data to fine-tuning data is more important than the pre-training data size. We exploit this insight in defining an optimized system selection model for the studied tasks.

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Automatic Difficulty Classification of Arabic Sentences
Nouran Khallaf | Serge Sharoff

In this paper, we present a Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) Sentence difficulty classifier, which predicts the difficulty of sentences for language learners using either the CEFR proficiency levels or the binary classification as simple or complex. We compare the use of sentence embeddings of different kinds (fastText, mBERT , XLM-R and Arabic-BERT), as well as traditional language features such as POS tags, dependency trees, readability scores and frequency lists for language learners. Our best results have been achieved using fined-tuned Arabic-BERT. The accuracy of our 3-way CEFR classification is F-1 of 0.80 and 0.75 for Arabic-Bert and XLM-R classification respectively and 0.71 Spearman correlation for regression. Our binary difficulty classifier reaches F-1 0.94 and F-1 0.98 for sentence-pair semantic similarity classifier.

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Dynamic Ensembles in Named Entity Recognition for Historical Arabic Texts
Muhammad Majadly | Tomer Sagi

The use of Named Entity Recognition (NER) over archaic Arabic texts is steadily increasing. However, most tools have been either developed for modern English or trained over English language documents and are limited over historical Arabic text. Even Arabic NER tools are often trained on modern web-sourced text, making their fit for a historical task questionable. To mitigate historic Arabic NER resource scarcity, we propose a dynamic ensemble model utilizing several learners. The dynamic aspect is achieved by utilizing predictors and features over NER algorithm results that identify which have performed better on a specific task in real-time. We evaluate our approach against state-of-the-art Arabic NER and static ensemble methods over a novel historical Arabic NER task we have created. Our results show that our approach improves upon the state-of-the-art and reaches a 0.8 F-score on this challenging task.

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Arabic Offensive Language on Twitter: Analysis and Experiments
Hamdy Mubarak | Ammar Rashed | Kareem Darwish | Younes Samih | Ahmed Abdelali

Detecting offensive language on Twitter has many applications ranging from detecting/predicting bullying to measuring polarization. In this paper, we focus on building a large Arabic offensive tweet dataset. We introduce a method for building a dataset that is not biased by topic, dialect, or target. We produce the largest Arabic dataset to date with special tags for vulgarity and hate speech. We thoroughly analyze the dataset to determine which topics, dialects, and gender are most associated with offensive tweets and how Arabic speakers useoffensive language. Lastly, we conduct many experiments to produce strong results (F1 =83.2) on the dataset using SOTA techniques.

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Adult Content Detection on Arabic Twitter: Analysis and Experiments
Hamdy Mubarak | Sabit Hassan | Ahmed Abdelali

With Twitter being one of the most popular social media platforms in the Arab region, it is not surprising to find accounts that post adult content in Arabic tweets; despite the fact that these platforms dissuade users from such content. In this paper, we present a dataset of Twitter accounts that post adult content. We perform an in-depth analysis of the nature of this data and contrast it with normal tweet content. Additionally, we present extensive experiments with traditional machine learning models, deep neural networks and contextual embeddings to identify such accounts. We show that from user information alone, we can identify such accounts with F1 score of 94.7% (macro average). With the addition of only one tweet as input, the F1 score rises to 96.8%.

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UL2C: Mapping User Locations to Countries on Arabic Twitter
Hamdy Mubarak | Sabit Hassan

Mapping user locations to countries can be useful for many applications such as dialect identification, author profiling, recommendation system, etc. Twitter allows users to declare their locations as free text, and these user-declared locations are often noisy and hard to decipher automatically. In this paper, we present the largest manually labeled dataset for mapping user locations on Arabic Twitter to their corresponding countries. We build effective machine learning models that can automate this mapping with significantly better efficiency compared to libraries such as geopy. We also show that our dataset is more effective than data extracted from GeoNames geographical database in this task as the latter covers only locations written in formal ways.

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Let-Mi: An Arabic Levantine Twitter Dataset for Misogynistic Language
Hala Mulki | Bilal Ghanem

Online misogyny has become an increasing worry for Arab women who experience gender-based online abuse on a daily basis. Misogyny automatic detection systems can assist in the prohibition of anti-women Arabic toxic content. Developing such systems is hindered by the lack of the Arabic misogyny benchmark datasets. In this paper, we introduce an Arabic Levantine Twitter dataset for Misogynistic language (LeT-Mi) to be the first benchmark dataset for Arabic misogyny. We further provide a detailed review of the dataset creation and annotation phases. The consistency of the annotations for the proposed dataset was emphasized through inter-rater agreement evaluation measures. Moreover, Let-Mi was used as an evaluation dataset through binary/multi-/target classification tasks conducted by several state-of-the-art machine learning systems along with Multi-Task Learning (MTL) configuration. The obtained results indicated that the performances achieved by the used systems are consistent with state-of-the-art results for languages other than Arabic, while employing MTL improved the performance of the misogyny/target classification tasks.

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Empathetic BERT2BERT Conversational Model: Learning Arabic Language Generation with Little Data
Tarek Naous | Wissam Antoun | Reem Mahmoud | Hazem Hajj

Enabling empathetic behavior in Arabic dialogue agents is an important aspect of building human-like conversational models. While Arabic Natural Language Processing has seen significant advances in Natural Language Understanding (NLU) with language models such as AraBERT, Natural Language Generation (NLG) remains a challenge. The shortcomings of NLG encoder-decoder models are primarily due to the lack of Arabic datasets suitable to train NLG models such as conversational agents. To overcome this issue, we propose a transformer-based encoder-decoder initialized with AraBERT parameters. By initializing the weights of the encoder and decoder with AraBERT pre-trained weights, our model was able to leverage knowledge transfer and boost performance in response generation. To enable empathy in our conversational model, we train it using the ArabicEmpatheticDialogues dataset and achieve high performance in empathetic response generation. Specifically, our model achieved a low perplexity value of 17.0 and an increase in 5 BLEU points compared to the previous state-of-the-art model. Also, our proposed model was rated highly by 85 human evaluators, validating its high capability in exhibiting empathy while generating relevant and fluent responses in open-domain settings.

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ALUE: Arabic Language Understanding Evaluation
Haitham Seelawi | Ibraheem Tuffaha | Mahmoud Gzawi | Wael Farhan | Bashar Talafha | Riham Badawi | Zyad Sober | Oday Al-Dweik | Abed Alhakim Freihat | Hussein Al-Natsheh

The emergence of Multi-task learning (MTL)models in recent years has helped push thestate of the art in Natural Language Un-derstanding (NLU). We strongly believe thatmany NLU problems in Arabic are especiallypoised to reap the benefits of such models. Tothis end we propose the Arabic Language Un-derstanding Evaluation Benchmark (ALUE),based on 8 carefully selected and previouslypublished tasks. For five of these, we providenew privately held evaluation datasets to en-sure the fairness and validity of our benchmark. We also provide a diagnostic dataset to helpresearchers probe the inner workings of theirmodels.Our initial experiments show thatMTL models outperform their singly trainedcounterparts on most tasks. But in order to en-tice participation from the wider community,we stick to publishing singly trained baselinesonly. Nonetheless, our analysis reveals thatthere is plenty of room for improvement inArabic NLU. We hope that ALUE will playa part in helping our community realize someof these improvements. Interested researchersare invited to submit their results to our online,and publicly accessible leaderboard.

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Quranic Verses Semantic Relatedness Using AraBERT
Abdullah Alsaleh | Eric Atwell | Abdulrahman Altahhan

Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT) has gained popularity in recent years producing state-of-the-art performances across Natural Language Processing tasks. In this paper, we used AraBERT language model to classify pairs of verses provided by the QurSim dataset to either be semantically related or not. We have pre-processed The QurSim dataset and formed three datasets for comparisons. Also, we have used both versions of AraBERT, which are AraBERTv02 and AraBERTv2, to recognise which version performs the best with the given datasets. The best results was AraBERTv02 with 92% accuracy score using a dataset comprised of label ‘2’ and label '-1’, the latter was generated outside of QurSim dataset.

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AraELECTRA: Pre-Training Text Discriminators for Arabic Language Understanding
Wissam Antoun | Fady Baly | Hazem Hajj

Advances in English language representation enabled a more sample-efficient pre-training task by Efficiently Learning an Encoder that Classifies Token Replacements Accurately (ELECTRA). Which, instead of training a model to recover masked tokens, it trains a discriminator model to distinguish true input tokens from corrupted tokens that were replaced by a generator network. On the other hand, current Arabic language representation approaches rely only on pretraining via masked language modeling. In this paper, we develop an Arabic language representation model, which we name AraELECTRA. Our model is pretrained using the replaced token detection objective on large Arabic text corpora. We evaluate our model on multiple Arabic NLP tasks, including reading comprehension, sentiment analysis, and named-entity recognition and we show that AraELECTRA outperforms current state-of-the-art Arabic language representation models, given the same pretraining data and with even a smaller model size.

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AraGPT2: Pre-Trained Transformer for Arabic Language Generation
Wissam Antoun | Fady Baly | Hazem Hajj

Recently, pre-trained transformer-based architectures have proven to be very efficient at language modeling and understanding, given that they are trained on a large enough corpus. Applications in language generation for Arabic are still lagging in comparison to other NLP advances primarily due to the lack of advanced Arabic language generation models. In this paper, we develop the first advanced Arabic language generation model, AraGPT2, trained from scratch on a large Arabic corpus of internet text and news articles. Our largest model, AraGPT2-mega, has 1.46 billion parameters, which makes it the largest Arabic language model available. The mega model was evaluated and showed success on different tasks including synthetic news generation, and zero-shot question answering. For text generation, our best model achieves a perplexity of 29.8 on held-out Wikipedia articles. A study conducted with human evaluators showed the significant success of AraGPT2-mega in generating news articles that are difficult to distinguish from articles written by humans. We thus develop and release an automatic discriminator model with a 98% percent accuracy in detecting model-generated text. The models are also publicly available, hoping to encourage new research directions and applications for Arabic NLP.

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QuranTree.jl: A Julia Package for Quranic Arabic Corpus
Al-Ahmadgaid Asaad

QuranTree.jl is an open-source package for working with the Quranic Arabic Corpus (Dukes and Habash, 2010). It aims to provide Julia APIs as an alternative to the Java APIs of JQuranTree. QuranTree.jl currently offers functionalities for intuitive indexing of chapters, verses, words and parts of words of the Qur’an; for creating custom transliteration; for character dediacritization and normalization; and, for handling the morphological features. Lastly, it can work well with Julia’s TextAnalysis.jl and Python’s CAMeL Tools.

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Automatic Romanization of Arabic Bibliographic Records
Fadhl Eryani | Nizar Habash

International library standards require cataloguers to tediously input Romanization of their catalogue records for the benefit of library users without specific language expertise. In this paper, we present the first reported results on the task of automatic Romanization of undiacritized Arabic bibliographic entries. This complex task requires the modeling of Arabic phonology, morphology, and even semantics. We collected a 2.5M word corpus of parallel Arabic and Romanized bibliographic entries, and benchmarked a number of models that vary in terms of complexity and resource dependence. Our best system reaches 89.3% exact word Romanization on a blind test set. We make our data and code publicly available.

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SERAG: Semantic Entity Retrieval from Arabic Knowledge Graphs
Saher Esmeir

Knowledge graphs (KGs) are widely used to store and access information about entities and their relationships. Given a query, the task of entity retrieval from a KG aims at presenting a ranked list of entities relevant to the query. Lately, an increasing number of models for entity retrieval have shown a significant improvement over traditional methods. These models, however, were developed for English KGs. In this work, we build on one such system, named KEWER, to propose SERAG (Semantic Entity Retrieval from Arabic knowledge Graphs). Like KEWER, SERAG uses random walks to generate entity embeddings. DBpedia-Entity v2 is considered the standard test collection for entity retrieval. We discuss the challenges of using it for non-English languages in general and Arabic in particular. We provide an Arabic version of this standard collection, and use it to evaluate SERAG. SERAG is shown to significantly outperform the popular BM25 model thanks to its multi-hop reasoning.

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Introducing A large Tunisian Arabizi Dialectal Dataset for Sentiment Analysis
Chayma Fourati | Hatem Haddad | Abir Messaoudi | Moez BenHajhmida | Aymen Ben Elhaj Mabrouk | Malek Naski

On various Social Media platforms, people, tend to use the informal way to communicate, or write posts and comments: their local dialects. In Africa, more than 1500 dialects and languages exist. Particularly, Tunisians talk and write informally using Latin letters and numbers rather than Arabic ones. In this paper, we introduce a large common-crawl-based Tunisian Arabizi dialectal dataset dedicated for Sentiment Analysis. The dataset consists of a total of 100k comments (about movies, politic, sport, etc.) annotated manually by Tunisian native speakers as Positive, negative and Neutral. We evaluate our dataset on sentiment analysis task using the Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT) as a contextual language model in its multilingual version (mBERT) as an embedding technique then combining mBERT with Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) as classifier. The dataset is publicly available.

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AraFacts: The First Large Arabic Dataset of Naturally Occurring Claims
Zien Sheikh Ali | Watheq Mansour | Tamer Elsayed | Abdulaziz Al‐Ali

We introduce AraFacts, the first large Arabic dataset of naturally occurring claims collected from 5 Arabic fact-checking websites, e.g., Fatabyyano and Misbar, and covering claims since 2016. Our dataset consists of 6,121 claims along with their factual labels and additional metadata, such as fact-checking article content, topical category, and links to posts or Web pages spreading the claim. Since the data is obtained from various fact-checking websites, we standardize the original claim labels to provide a unified label rating for all claims. Moreover, we provide revealing dataset statistics and motivate its use by suggesting possible research applications. The dataset is made publicly available for the research community.

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Improving Cross-Lingual Transfer for Event Argument Extraction with Language-Universal Sentence Structures
Minh Van Nguyen | Thien Huu Nguyen

We study the problem of Cross-lingual Event Argument Extraction (CEAE). The task aims to predict argument roles of entity mentions for events in text, whose language is different from the language that a predictive model has been trained on. Previous work on CEAE has shown the cross-lingual benefits of universal dependency trees in capturing shared syntactic structures of sentences across languages. In particular, this work exploits the existence of the syntactic connections between the words in the dependency trees as the anchor knowledge to transfer the representation learning across languages for CEAE models (i.e., via graph convolutional neural networks – GCNs). In this paper, we introduce two novel sources of language-independent information for CEAE models based on the semantic similarity and the universal dependency relations of the word pairs in different languages. We propose to use the two sources of information to produce shared sentence structures to bridge the gap between languages and improve the cross-lingual performance of the CEAE models. Extensive experiments are conducted with Arabic, Chinese, and English to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method for CEAE.

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NADI 2021: The Second Nuanced Arabic Dialect Identification Shared Task
Muhammad Abdul-Mageed | Chiyu Zhang | AbdelRahim Elmadany | Houda Bouamor | Nizar Habash

We present the findings and results of theSecond Nuanced Arabic Dialect IdentificationShared Task (NADI 2021). This Shared Taskincludes four subtasks: country-level ModernStandard Arabic (MSA) identification (Subtask1.1), country-level dialect identification (Subtask1.2), province-level MSA identification (Subtask2.1), and province-level sub-dialect identifica-tion (Subtask 2.2). The shared task dataset cov-ers a total of 100 provinces from 21 Arab coun-tries, collected from the Twitter domain. A totalof 53 teams from 23 countries registered to par-ticipate in the tasks, thus reflecting the interestof the community in this area. We received 16submissions for Subtask 1.1 from five teams, 27submissions for Subtask 1.2 from eight teams,12 submissions for Subtask 2.1 from four teams,and 13 Submissions for subtask 2.2 from fourteams.

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Adapting MARBERT for Improved Arabic Dialect Identification: Submission to the NADI 2021 Shared Task
Badr AlKhamissi | Mohamed Gabr | Muhammad ElNokrashy | Khaled Essam

In this paper, we tackle the Nuanced Arabic Dialect Identification (NADI) shared task (Abdul-Mageed et al., 2021) and demonstrate state-of-the-art results on all of its four subtasks. Tasks are to identify the geographic origin of short Dialectal (DA) and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) utterances at the levels of both country and province. Our final model is an ensemble of variants built on top of MARBERT that achieves an F1-score of 34.03% for DA at the country-level development set—an improvement of 7.63% from previous work.

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Country-level Arabic Dialect Identification Using Small Datasets with Integrated Machine Learning Techniques and Deep Learning Models
Maha J. Althobaiti

Arabic is characterised by a considerable number of varieties including spoken dialects. In this paper, we presented our models developed to participate in the NADI subtask 1.2 that requires building a system to distinguish between 21 country-level dialects. We investigated several classical machine learning approaches and deep learning models using small datasets. We examined an integration technique between two machine learning approaches. Additionally, we created dictionaries automatically based on Pointwise Mutual Information and labelled datasets, which enriched the feature space when training models. A semi-supervised learning approach was also examined and compared to other methods that exploit large unlabelled datasets, such as building pre-trained word embeddings. Our winning model was the Support Vector Machine with dictionary-based features and Pointwise Mutual Information values, achieving an 18.94% macros-average F1-score.

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BERT-based Multi-Task Model for Country and Province Level MSA and Dialectal Arabic Identification
Abdellah El Mekki | Abdelkader El Mahdaouy | Kabil Essefar | Nabil El Mamoun | Ismail Berrada | Ahmed Khoumsi

Dialect and standard language identification are crucial tasks for many Arabic natural language processing applications. In this paper, we present our deep learning-based system, submitted to the second NADI shared task for country-level and province-level identification of Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) and Dialectal Arabic (DA). The system is based on an end-to-end deep Multi-Task Learning (MTL) model to tackle both country-level and province-level MSA/DA identification. The latter MTL model consists of a shared Bidirectional Encoder Representation Transformers (BERT) encoder, two task-specific attention layers, and two classifiers. Our key idea is to leverage both the task-discriminative and the inter-task shared features for country and province MSA/DA identification. The obtained results show that our MTL model outperforms single-task models on most subtasks.

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Country-level Arabic Dialect Identification using RNNs with and without Linguistic Features
Elsayed Issa | Mohammed AlShakhori1 | Reda Al-Bahrani | Gus Hahn-Powell

This work investigates the value of augmenting recurrent neural networks with feature engineering for the Second Nuanced Arabic Dialect Identification (NADI) Subtask 1.2: Country-level DA identification. We compare the performance of a simple word-level LSTM using pretrained embeddings with one enhanced using feature embeddings for engineered linguistic features. Our results show that the addition of explicit features to the LSTM is detrimental to performance. We attribute this performance loss to the bivalency of some linguistic items in some text, ubiquity of topics, and participant mobility.

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Arabic Dialect Identification based on a Weighted Concatenation of TF-IDF Features
Mohamed Lichouri | Mourad Abbas | Khaled Lounnas | Besma Benaziz | Aicha Zitouni

In this paper, we analyze the impact of the weighted concatenation of TF-IDF features for the Arabic Dialect Identification task while we participated in the NADI2021 shared task. This study is performed for two subtasks: subtask 1.1 (country-level MSA) and subtask 1.2 (country-level DA) identification. The classifiers supporting our comparative study are Linear Support Vector Classification (LSVC), Linear Regression (LR), Perceptron, Stochastic Gradient Descent (SGD), Passive Aggressive (PA), Complement Naive Bayes (CNB), MutliLayer Perceptron (MLP), and RidgeClassifier. In the evaluation phase, our system gives F1 scores of 14.87% and 21.49%, for country-level MSA and DA identification respectively, which is very close to the average F1 scores achieved by the submitted systems and recorded for both subtasks (18.70% and 24.23%).

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Machine Learning-Based Approach for Arabic Dialect Identification
Hamada Nayel | Ahmed Hassan | Mahmoud Sobhi | Ahmed El-Sawy

This paper describes our systems submitted to the Second Nuanced Arabic Dialect Identification Shared Task (NADI 2021). Dialect identification is the task of automatically detecting the source variety of a given text or speech segment. There are four subtasks, two subtasks for country-level identification and the other two subtasks for province-level identification. The data in this task covers a total of 100 provinces from all 21 Arab countries and come from the Twitter domain. The proposed systems depend on five machine-learning approaches namely Complement Naïve Bayes, Support Vector Machine, Decision Tree, Logistic Regression and Random Forest Classifiers. F1 macro-averaged score of Naïve Bayes classifier outperformed all other classifiers for development and test data.

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Dialect Identification in Nuanced Arabic Tweets Using Farasa Segmentation and AraBERT
Anshul Wadhawan

This paper presents our approach to address the EACL WANLP-2021 Shared Task 1: Nuanced Arabic Dialect Identification (NADI). The task is aimed at developing a system that identifies the geographical location(country/province) from where an Arabic tweet in the form of modern standard Arabic or dialect comes from. We solve the task in two parts. The first part involves pre-processing the provided dataset by cleaning, adding and segmenting various parts of the text. This is followed by carrying out experiments with different versions of two Transformer based models, AraBERT and AraELECTRA. Our final approach achieved macro F1-scores of 0.216, 0.235, 0.054, and 0.043 in the four subtasks, and we were ranked second in MSA identification subtasks and fourth in DA identification subtasks.

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Overview of the WANLP 2021 Shared Task on Sarcasm and Sentiment Detection in Arabic
Ibrahim Abu Farha | Wajdi Zaghouani | Walid Magdy

This paper provides an overview of the WANLP 2021 shared task on sarcasm and sentiment detection in Arabic. The shared task has two subtasks: sarcasm detection (subtask 1) and sentiment analysis (subtask 2). This shared task aims to promote and bring attention to Arabic sarcasm detection, which is crucial to improve the performance in other tasks such as sentiment analysis. The dataset used in this shared task, namely ArSarcasm-v2, consists of 15,548 tweets labelled for sarcasm, sentiment and dialect. We received 27 and 22 submissions for subtasks 1 and 2 respectively. Most of the approaches relied on using and fine-tuning pre-trained language models such as AraBERT and MARBERT. The top achieved results for the sarcasm detection and sentiment analysis tasks were 0.6225 F1-score and 0.748 F1-PN respectively.

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WANLP 2021 Shared-Task: Towards Irony and Sentiment Detection in Arabic Tweets using Multi-headed-LSTM-CNN-GRU and MaRBERT
Reem Abdel-Salam

Irony and Sentiment detection is important to understand people’s behavior and thoughts. Thus it has become a popular task in natural language processing (NLP). This paper presents results and main findings in WANLP 2021 shared tasks one and two. The task was based on the ArSarcasm-v2 dataset (Abu Farha et al., 2021). In this paper, we describe our system Multi-headed-LSTM-CNN-GRU and also MARBERT (Abdul-Mageed et al., 2021) submitted for the shared task, ranked 10 out of 27 in shared task one achieving 0.5662 F1-Sarcasm and ranked 3 out of 22 in shared task two achieving 0.7321 F1-PN under CodaLab username “rematchka”. We experimented with various models and the two best performing models are a Multi-headed CNN-LSTM-GRU in which we used prepossessed text and emoji presented from tweets and MARBERT.

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Sarcasm and Sentiment Detection In Arabic Tweets Using BERT-based Models and Data Augmentation
Abeer Abuzayed | Hend Al-Khalifa

In this paper, we describe our efforts on the shared task of sarcasm and sentiment detection in Arabic (Abu Farha et al., 2021). The shared task consists of two sub-tasks: Sarcasm Detection (Subtask 1) and Sentiment Analysis (Subtask 2). Our experiments were based on fine-tuning seven BERT-based models with data augmentation to solve the imbalanced data problem. For both tasks, the MARBERT BERT-based model with data augmentation outperformed other models with an increase of the F-score by 15% for both tasks which shows the effectiveness of our approach.

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Multi-task Learning Using a Combination of Contextualised and Static Word Embeddings for Arabic Sarcasm Detection and Sentiment Analysis
Abdullah I. Alharbi | Mark Lee

Sarcasm detection and sentiment analysis are important tasks in Natural Language Understanding. Sarcasm is a type of expression where the sentiment polarity is flipped by an interfering factor. In this study, we exploited this relationship to enhance both tasks by proposing a multi-task learning approach using a combination of static and contextualised embeddings. Our proposed system achieved the best result in the sarcasm detection subtask.

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ArSarcasm Shared Task: An Ensemble BERT Model for SarcasmDetection in Arabic Tweets
Laila Bashmal | Daliyah AlZeer

Detecting Sarcasm has never been easy for machines to process. In this work, we present our submission of the sub-task1 of the shared task on sarcasm and sentiment detection in Arabic organized by the 6th Workshop for Arabic Natural Language Processing. In this work, we explored different approaches based on BERT models. First, we fine-tuned the AraBERTv02 model for the sarcasm detection task. Then, we used the Sentence-BERT model trained with contrastive learning to extract representative tweet embeddings. Finally, inspired by how the human brain comprehends the surface and the implicit meanings of sarcastic tweets, we combined the sentence embedding with the fine-tuned AraBERTv02 to further boost the performance of the model. Through the ensemble of the two models, our team ranked 5th out of 27 teams on the shared task of sarcasm detection in Arabic, with an F1-score of %59.89 on the official test data. The obtained result is %2.36 lower than the 1st place which confirms the capabilities of the employed combined model in detecting sarcasm.

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Sarcasm and Sentiment Detection in Arabic: investigating the interest of character-level features
Dhaou Ghoul | Gaël Lejeune

We present three methods developed for the Shared Task on Sarcasm and Sentiment Detection in Arabic. We present a baseline that uses character n-gram features. We also propose two more sophisticated methods: a recurrent neural network with a word level representation and an ensemble classifier relying on word and character-level features. We chose to present results from an ensemble classifier but it was not very successful as compared to the best systems : 22th/37 on sarcasm detection and 15th/22 on sentiment detection. It finally appeared that our baseline could have been improved and beat those results.

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Deep Multi-Task Model for Sarcasm Detection and Sentiment Analysis in Arabic Language
Abdelkader El Mahdaouy | Abdellah El Mekki | Kabil Essefar | Nabil El Mamoun | Ismail Berrada | Ahmed Khoumsi

The prominence of figurative language devices, such as sarcasm and irony, poses serious challenges for Arabic Sentiment Analysis (SA). While previous research works tackle SA and sarcasm detection separately, this paper introduces an end-to-end deep Multi-Task Learning (MTL) model, allowing knowledge interaction between the two tasks. Our MTL model’s architecture consists of a Bidirectional Encoder Representation from Transformers (BERT) model, a multi-task attention interaction module, and two task classifiers. The overall obtained results show that our proposed model outperforms its single-task and MTL counterparts on both sarcasm and sentiment detection subtasks.

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A Contextual Word Embedding for Arabic Sarcasm Detection with Random Forests
Hazem Elgabry | Shimaa Attia | Ahmed Abdel-Rahman | Ahmed Abdel-Ate | Sandra Girgis

Sarcasm detection is of great importance in understanding people’s true sentiments and opinions. Many online feedbacks, reviews, social media comments, etc. are sarcastic. Several researches have already been done in this field, but most researchers studied the English sarcasm analysis compared to the researches are done in Arabic sarcasm analysis because of the Arabic language challenges. In this paper, we propose a new approach for improving Arabic sarcasm detection. Our approach is using data augmentation, contextual word embedding and random forests model to get the best results. Our accuracy in the shared task on sarcasm and sentiment detection in Arabic was 0.5189 for F1-sarcastic as the official metric using the shared dataset ArSarcasmV2 (Abu Farha, et al., 2021).

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SarcasmDet at Sarcasm Detection Task 2021 in Arabic using AraBERT Pretrained Model
Dalya Faraj | Dalya Faraj | Malak Abdullah

This paper presents one of the top five winning solutions for the Shared Task on Sarcasm and Sentiment Detection in Arabic (Subtask-1 Sarcasm Detection). The goal of the task is to identify whether a tweet is sarcastic or not. Our solution has been developed using ensemble technique with AraBERT pre-trained model. We describe the architecture of the submitted solution in the shared task. We also provide the experiments and the hyperparameter tuning that lead to this result. Besides, we discuss and analyze the results by comparing all the models that we trained or tested to achieve a better score in a table design. Our model is ranked fifth out of 27 teams with an F1 score of 0.5985. It is worth mentioning that our model achieved the highest accuracy score of 0.7830

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Sarcasm and Sentiment Detection in Arabic language A Hybrid Approach Combining Embeddings and Rule-based Features
Kamel Gaanoun | Imade Benelallam

This paper presents the ArabicProcessors team’s system designed for sarcasm (subtask 1) and sentiment (subtask 2) detection shared task. We created a hybrid system by combining rule-based features and both static and dynamic embeddings using transformers and deep learning. The system’s architecture is an ensemble of Naive bayes, MarBERT and Mazajak embedding. This process scored an F1-score of 51% on sarcasm and 71% for sentiment detection.

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Combining Context-Free and Contextualized Representations for Arabic Sarcasm Detection and Sentiment Identification
Amey Hengle | Atharva Kshirsagar | Shaily Desai | Manisha Marathe

Since their inception, transformer-based language models have led to impressive performance gains across multiple natural language processing tasks. For Arabic, the current state-of-the-art results on most datasets are achieved by the AraBERT language model. Notwithstanding these recent advancements, sarcasm and sentiment detection persist to be challenging tasks in Arabic, given the language’s rich morphology, linguistic disparity and dialectal variations. This paper proffers team SPPU-AASM’s submission for the WANLP ArSarcasm shared-task 2021, which centers around the sarcasm and sentiment polarity detection of Arabic tweets. The study proposes a hybrid model, combining sentence representations from AraBERT with static word vectors trained on Arabic social media corpora. The proposed system achieves a F1-sarcastic score of 0.62 and a F-PN score of 0.715 for the sarcasm and sentiment detection tasks, respectively. Simulation results show that the proposed system outperforms multiple existing approaches for both the tasks, suggesting that the amalgamation of context-free and context-dependent text representations can help capture complementary facets of word meaning in Arabic. The system ranked second and tenth in the respective sub-tasks of sarcasm detection and sentiment identification.

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Leveraging Offensive Language for Sarcasm and Sentiment Detection in Arabic
Fatemah Husain | Ozlem Uzuner

Sarcasm detection is one of the top challenging tasks in text classification, particularly for informal Arabic with high syntactic and semantic ambiguity. We propose two systems that harness knowledge from multiple tasks to improve the performance of the classifier. This paper presents the systems used in our participation to the two sub-tasks of the Sixth Arabic Natural Language Processing Workshop (WANLP); Sarcasm Detection and Sentiment Analysis. Our methodology is driven by the hypothesis that tweets with negative sentiment and tweets with sarcasm content are more likely to have offensive content, thus, fine-tuning the classification model using large corpus of offensive language, supports the learning process of the model to effectively detect sentiment and sarcasm contents. Results demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach for sarcasm detection task over sentiment analysis task.

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The IDC System for Sentiment Classification and Sarcasm Detection in Arabic
Abraham Israeli | Yotam Nahum | Shai Fine | Kfir Bar

Sentiment classification and sarcasm detection attract a lot of attention by the NLP research community. However, solving these two problems in Arabic and on the basis of social network data (i.e., Twitter) is still of lower interest. In this paper we present designated solutions for sentiment classification and sarcasm detection tasks that were introduced as part of a shared task by Abu Farha et al. (2021). We adjust the existing state-of-the-art transformer pretrained models for our needs. In addition, we use a variety of machine-learning techniques such as down-sampling, augmentation, bagging, and usage of meta-features to improve the models performance. We achieve an F1-score of 0.75 over the sentiment classification problem where the F1-score is calculated over the positive and negative classes (the neutral class is not taken into account). We achieve an F1-score of 0.66 over the sarcasm detection problem where the F1-score is calculated over the sarcastic class only. In both cases, the above reported results are evaluated over the ArSarcasm-v2–an extended dataset of the ArSarcasm (Farha and Magdy, 2020) that was introduced as part of the shared task. This reflects an improvement to the state-of-the-art results in both tasks.

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Preprocessing Solutions for Detection of Sarcasm and Sentiment for Arabic
Mohamed Lichouri | Mourad Abbas | Besma Benaziz | Aicha Zitouni | Khaled Lounnas

This paper describes our approach to detecting Sentiment and Sarcasm for Arabic in the ArSarcasm 2021 shared task. Data preprocessing is a crucial task for a successful learning, that is why we applied a set of preprocessing steps to the dataset before training two classifiers, namely Linear Support Vector Classifier (LSVC) and Bidirectional Long Short Term Memory (BiLSTM). The findings show that despite the simplicity of the proposed approach, using the LSVC model with a normalizing Arabic (NA) preprocessing and the BiLSTM architecture with an Embedding layer as input have yielded an encouraging F1score of 33.71% and 57.80% for sarcasm and sentiment detection, respectively.

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iCompass at Shared Task on Sarcasm and Sentiment Detection in Arabic
Malek Naski | Abir Messaoudi | Hatem Haddad | Moez BenHajhmida | Chayma Fourati | Aymen Ben Elhaj Mabrouk

We describe our submitted system to the 2021 Shared Task on Sarcasm and Sentiment Detection in Arabic (Abu Farha et al., 2021). We tackled both subtasks, namely Sarcasm Detection (Subtask 1) and Sentiment Analysis (Subtask 2). We used state-of-the-art pretrained contextualized text representation models and fine-tuned them according to the downstream task in hand. As a first approach, we used Google’s multilingual BERT and then other Arabic variants: AraBERT, ARBERT and MARBERT. The results found show that MARBERT outperforms all of the previously mentioned models overall, either on Subtask 1 or Subtask 2.

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Machine Learning-Based Model for Sentiment and Sarcasm Detection
Hamada Nayel | Eslam Amer | Aya Allam | Hanya Abdallah

Within the last few years, the number of Arabic internet users and Arabic online content is in exponential growth. Dealing with Arabic datasets and the usage of non-explicit sentences to express an opinion are considered to be the major challenges in the field of natural language processing. Hence, sarcasm and sentiment analysis has gained a major interest from the research community, especially in this language. Automatic sarcasm detection and sentiment analysis can be applied using three approaches, namely supervised, unsupervised and hybrid approach. In this paper, a model based on a supervised machine learning algorithm called Support Vector Machine (SVM) has been used for this process. The proposed model has been evaluated using ArSarcasm-v2 dataset. The performance of the proposed model has been compared with other models submitted to sentiment analysis and sarcasm detection shared task.

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DeepBlueAI at WANLP-EACL2021 task 2: A Deep Ensemble-based Method for Sarcasm and Sentiment Detection in Arabic
Bingyan Song | Chunguang Pan | Shengguang Wang | Zhipeng Luo

Sarcasm is one of the main challenges for sentiment analysis systems due to using implicit indirect phrasing for expressing opinions, especially in Arabic. This paper presents the system we submitted to the Sarcasm and Sentiment Detection task of WANLP-2021 that is capable of dealing with both two subtasks. We first perform fine-tuning on two kinds of pre-trained language models (PLMs) with different training strategies. Then an effective stacking mechanism is applied on top of the fine-tuned PLMs to obtain the final prediction. Experimental results on ArSarcasm-v2 dataset show the effectiveness of our method and we rank third and second for subtask 1 and 2.

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AraBERT and Farasa Segmentation Based Approach For Sarcasm and Sentiment Detection in Arabic Tweets
Anshul Wadhawan

This paper presents our strategy to tackle the EACL WANLP-2021 Shared Task 2: Sarcasm and Sentiment Detection. One of the subtasks aims at developing a system that identifies whether a given Arabic tweet is sarcastic in nature or not, while the other aims to identify the sentiment of the Arabic tweet. We approach the task in two steps. The first step involves pre processing the provided dataset by performing insertions, deletions and segmentation operations on various parts of the text. The second step involves experimenting with multiple variants of two transformer based models, AraELECTRA and AraBERT. Our final approach was ranked seventh and fourth in the Sarcasm and Sentiment Detection subtasks respectively.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Eleventh Workshop on Computational Approaches to Subjectivity, Sentiment and Social Media Analysis

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Proceedings of the Eleventh Workshop on Computational Approaches to Subjectivity, Sentiment and Social Media Analysis
Orphee De Clercq | Alexandra Balahur | Joao Sedoc | Valentin Barriere | Shabnam Tafreshi | Sven Buechel | Veronique Hoste

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ToxCCIn: Toxic Content Classification with Interpretability
Tong Xiang | Sean MacAvaney | Eugene Yang | Nazli Goharian

Despite the recent successes of transformer-based models in terms of effectiveness on a variety of tasks, their decisions often remain opaque to humans. Explanations are particularly important for tasks like offensive language or toxicity detection on social media because a manual appeal process is often in place to dispute automatically flagged content. In this work, we propose a technique to improve the interpretability of these models, based on a simple and powerful assumption: a post is at least as toxic as its most toxic span. We incorporate this assumption into transformer models by scoring a post based on the maximum toxicity of its spans and augmenting the training process to identify correct spans. We find this approach effective and can produce explanations that exceed the quality of those provided by Logistic Regression analysis (often regarded as a highly-interpretable model), according to a human study.

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Language that Captivates the Audience: Predicting Affective Ratings of TED Talks in a Multi-Label Classification Task
Elma Kerz | Yu Qiao | Daniel Wiechmann

The aim of the paper is twofold: (1) to automatically predict the ratings assigned by viewers to 14 categories available for TED talks in a multi-label classification task and (2) to determine what types of features drive classification accuracy for each of the categories. The focus is on features of language usage from five groups pertaining to syntactic complexity, lexical richness, register-based n-gram measures, information-theoretic measures and LIWC-style measures. We show that a Recurrent Neural Network classifier trained exclusively on within-text distributions of such features can reach relatively high levels of overall accuracy (69%) across the 14 categories. We find that features from two groups are strong predictors of the affective ratings across all categories and that there are distinct patterns of language usage for each rating category.

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Partisanship and Fear are Associated with Resistance to COVID-19 Directives
Mike Lindow | David DeFranza | Arul Mishra | Himanshu Mishra

Ideological differences have had a large impact on individual and community response to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. Early behavioral research during the pandemic showed that conservatives were less likely to adhere to health directives, which contradicts a body of work suggesting that conservative ideology emphasizes a rule abiding, loss aversion, and prevention focus. We reconcile this contradiction by analyzing semantic content of local press releases, federal press releases, and localized tweets during the first month of the government response to COVID-19 in the United States. Controlling for factors such as COVID-19 confirmed cases and deaths, local economic indicators, and more, we find that online expressions of fear in conservative areas lead to an increase in adherence to public health recommendations concerning COVID-19, and that expressions of fear in government press releases are a significant predictor of expressed fear on Twitter.

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Explainable Detection of Sarcasm in Social Media
Ramya Akula | Ivan Garibay

Sarcasm is a linguistic expression often used to communicate the opposite of what is said, usually something that is very unpleasant with an intention to insult or ridicule. Inherent ambiguity in sarcastic expressions makes sarcasm detection very difficult. In this work, we focus on detecting sarcasm in textual conversations, written in English, from various social networking platforms and online media. To this end, we develop an interpretable deep learning model using multi-head self-attention and gated recurrent units. We show the effectiveness and interpretability of our approach by achieving state-of-the-art results on datasets from social networking platforms, online discussion forums, and political dialogues.

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Emotion Ratings: How Intensity, Annotation Confidence and Agreements are Entangled
Enrica Troiano | Sebastian Padó | Roman Klinger

When humans judge the affective content of texts, they also implicitly assess the correctness of such judgment, that is, their confidence. We hypothesize that people’s (in)confidence that they performed well in an annotation task leads to (dis)agreements among each other. If this is true, confidence may serve as a diagnostic tool for systematic differences in annotations. To probe our assumption, we conduct a study on a subset of the Corpus of Contemporary American English, in which we ask raters to distinguish neutral sentences from emotion-bearing ones, while scoring the confidence of their answers. Confidence turns out to approximate inter-annotator disagreements. Further, we find that confidence is correlated to emotion intensity: perceiving stronger affect in text prompts annotators to more certain classification performances. This insight is relevant for modelling studies of intensity, as it opens the question wether automatic regressors or classifiers actually predict intensity, or rather human’s self-perceived confidence.

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Disentangling Document Topic and Author Gender in Multiple Languages: Lessons for Adversarial Debiasing
Erenay Dayanik | Sebastian Padó

Text classification is a central tool in NLP. However, when the target classes are strongly correlated with other textual attributes, text classification models can pick up “wrong” features, leading to bad generalization and biases. In social media analysis, this problem surfaces for demographic user classes such as language, topic, or gender, which influence the generate text to a substantial extent. Adversarial training has been claimed to mitigate this problem, but thorough evaluation is missing. In this paper, we experiment with text classification of the correlated attributes of document topic and author gender, using a novel multilingual parallel corpus of TED talk transcripts. Our findings are: (a) individual classifiers for topic and author gender are indeed biased; (b) debiasing with adversarial training works for topic, but breaks down for author gender; (c) gender debiasing results differ across languages. We interpret the result in terms of feature space overlap, highlighting the role of linguistic surface realization of the target classes.

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Universal Joy A Data Set and Results for Classifying Emotions Across Languages
Sotiris Lamprinidis | Federico Bianchi | Daniel Hardt | Dirk Hovy

While emotions are universal aspects of human psychology, they are expressed differently across different languages and cultures. We introduce a new data set of over 530k anonymized public Facebook posts across 18 languages, labeled with five different emotions. Using multilingual BERT embeddings, we show that emotions can be reliably inferred both within and across languages. Zero-shot learning produces promising results for low-resource languages. Following established theories of basic emotions, we provide a detailed analysis of the possibilities and limits of cross-lingual emotion classification. We find that structural and typological similarity between languages facilitates cross-lingual learning, as well as linguistic diversity of training data. Our results suggest that there are commonalities underlying the expression of emotion in different languages. We publicly release the anonymized data for future research.

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FEEL-IT: Emotion and Sentiment Classification for the Italian Language
Federico Bianchi | Debora Nozza | Dirk Hovy

While sentiment analysis is a popular task to understand people’s reactions online, we often need more nuanced information: is the post negative because the user is angry or sad? An abundance of approaches have been introduced for tackling these tasks, also for Italian, but they all treat only one of the tasks. We introduce FEEL-IT, a novel benchmark corpus of Italian Twitter posts annotated with four basic emotions: anger, fear, joy, sadness. By collapsing them, we can also do sentiment analysis. We evaluate our corpus on benchmark datasets for both emotion and sentiment classification, obtaining competitive results. We release an open-source Python library, so researchers can use a model trained on FEEL-IT for inferring both sentiments and emotions from Italian text.

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An End-to-End Network for Emotion-Cause Pair Extraction
Aaditya Singh | Shreeshail Hingane | Saim Wani | Ashutosh Modi

The task of Emotion-Cause Pair Extraction (ECPE) aims to extract all potential clause-pairs of emotions and their corresponding causes in a document. Unlike the more well-studied task of Emotion Cause Extraction (ECE), ECPE does not require the emotion clauses to be provided as annotations. Previous works on ECPE have either followed a multi-stage approach where emotion extraction, cause extraction, and pairing are done independently or use complex architectures to resolve its limitations. In this paper, we propose an end-to-end model for the ECPE task. Due to the unavailability of an English language ECPE corpus, we adapt the NTCIR-13 ECE corpus and establish a baseline for the ECPE task on this dataset. On this dataset, the proposed method produces significant performance improvements (∼ 6.5% increase in F1 score) over the multi-stage approach and achieves comparable performance to the state-of-the-art methods.

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WASSA 2021 Shared Task: Predicting Empathy and Emotion in Reaction to News Stories
Shabnam Tafreshi | Orphee De Clercq | Valentin Barriere | Sven Buechel | João Sedoc | Alexandra Balahur

This paper presents the results that were obtained from the WASSA 2021 shared task on predicting empathy and emotions. The participants were given access to a dataset comprising empathic reactions to news stories where harm is done to a person, group, or other. These reactions consist of essays, Batson empathic concern, and personal distress scores, and the dataset was further extended with news articles, person-level demographic information (age, gender, ethnicity, income, education level), and personality information. Additionally, emotion labels, namely Ekman’s six basic emotions, were added to the essays at both the document and sentence level. Participation was encouraged in two tracks: predicting empathy and predicting emotion categories. In total five teams participated in the shared task. We summarize the methods and resources used by the participating teams.

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PVG at WASSA 2021: A Multi-Input, Multi-Task, Transformer-Based Architecture for Empathy and Distress Prediction
Atharva Kulkarni | Sunanda Somwase | Shivam Rajput | Manisha Marathe

Active research pertaining to the affective phenomenon of empathy and distress is invaluable for improving human-machine interaction. Predicting intensities of such complex emotions from textual data is difficult, as these constructs are deeply rooted in the psychological theory. Consequently, for better prediction, it becomes imperative to take into account ancillary factors such as the psychological test scores, demographic features, underlying latent primitive emotions, along with the text’s undertone and its psychological complexity. This paper proffers team PVG’s solution to the WASSA 2021 Shared Task on Predicting Empathy and Emotion in Reaction to News Stories. Leveraging the textual data, demographic features, psychological test score, and the intrinsic interdependencies of primitive emotions and empathy, we propose a multi-input, multi-task framework for the task of empathy score prediction. Here, the empathy score prediction is considered the primary task, while emotion and empathy classification are considered secondary auxiliary tasks. For the distress score prediction task, the system is further boosted by the addition of lexical features. Our submission ranked 1st based on the average correlation (0.545) as well as the distress correlation (0.574), and 2nd for the empathy Pearson correlation (0.517).

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WASSA@IITK at WASSA 2021: Multi-task Learning and Transformer Finetuning for Emotion Classification and Empathy Prediction
Jay Mundra | Rohan Gupta | Sagnik Mukherjee

This paper describes our contribution to the WASSA 2021 shared task on Empathy Prediction and Emotion Classification. The broad goal of this task was to model an empathy score, a distress score and the overall level of emotion of an essay written in response to a newspaper article associated with harm to someone. We have used the ELECTRA model abundantly and also advanced deep learning approaches like multi-task learning. Additionally, we also leveraged standard machine learning techniques like ensembling. Our system achieves a Pearson Correlation Coefficient of 0.533 on sub-task I and a macro F1 score of 0.5528 on sub-task II. We ranked 1st in Emotion Classification sub-task and 3rd in Empathy Prediction sub-task.

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Analyzing Curriculum Learning for Sentiment Analysis along Task Difficulty, Pacing and Visualization Axes
Anvesh Rao Vijjini | Kaveri Anuranjana | Radhika Mamidi

While Curriculum Learning (CL) has recently gained traction in Natural language Processing Tasks, it is still not adequately analyzed. Previous works only show their effectiveness but fail short to explain and interpret the internal workings fully. In this paper, we analyze curriculum learning in sentiment analysis along multiple axes. Some of these axes have been proposed by earlier works that need more in-depth study. Such analysis requires understanding where curriculum learning works and where it does not. Our axes of analysis include Task difficulty on CL, comparing CL pacing techniques, and qualitative analysis by visualizing the movement of attention scores in the model as curriculum phases progress. We find that curriculum learning works best for difficult tasks and may even lead to a decrement in performance for tasks with higher performance without curriculum learning. We see that One-Pass curriculum strategies suffer from catastrophic forgetting and attention movement visualization within curriculum pacing. This shows that curriculum learning breaks down the challenging main task into easier sub-tasks solved sequentially.

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Lightweight Models for Multimodal Sequential Data
Soumya Sourav | Jessica Ouyang

Human language encompasses more than just text; it also conveys emotions through tone and gestures. We present a case study of three simple and efficient Transformer-based architectures for predicting sentiment and emotion in multimodal data. The Late Fusion model merges unimodal features to create a multimodal feature sequence, the Round Robin model iteratively combines bimodal features using cross-modal attention, and the Hybrid Fusion model combines trimodal and unimodal features together to form a final feature sequence for predicting sentiment. Our experiments show that our small models are effective and outperform the publicly released versions of much larger, state-of-the-art multimodal sentiment analysis systems.

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Exploring Implicit Sentiment Evoked by Fine-grained News Events
Cynthia Van Hee | Orphee De Clercq | Veronique Hoste

We investigate the feasibility of defining sentiment evoked by fine-grained news events. Our research question is based on the premise that methods for detecting implicit sentiment in news can be a key driver of content diversity, which is one way to mitigate the detrimental effects of filter bubbles that recommenders based on collaborative filtering may produce. Our experiments are based on 1,735 news articles from major Flemish newspapers that were manually annotated, with high agreement, for implicit sentiment. While lexical resources prove insufficient for sentiment analysis in this data genre, our results demonstrate that machine learning models based on SVM and BERT are able to automatically infer the implicit sentiment evoked by news events.

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Exploring Stylometric and Emotion-Based Features for Multilingual Cross-Domain Hate Speech Detection
Ilia Markov | Nikola Ljubešić | Darja Fišer | Walter Daelemans

In this paper, we describe experiments designed to evaluate the impact of stylometric and emotion-based features on hate speech detection: the task of classifying textual content into hate or non-hate speech classes. Our experiments are conducted for three languages – English, Slovene, and Dutch – both in in-domain and cross-domain setups, and aim to investigate hate speech using features that model two linguistic phenomena: the writing style of hateful social media content operationalized as function word usage on the one hand, and emotion expression in hateful messages on the other hand. The results of experiments with features that model different combinations of these phenomena support our hypothesis that stylometric and emotion-based features are robust indicators of hate speech. Their contribution remains persistent with respect to domain and language variation. We show that the combination of features that model the targeted phenomena outperforms words and character n-gram features under cross-domain conditions, and provides a significant boost to deep learning models, which currently obtain the best results, when combined with them in an ensemble.

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Emotion-Aware, Emotion-Agnostic, or Automatic: Corpus Creation Strategies to Obtain Cognitive Event Appraisal Annotations
Jan Hofmann | Enrica Troiano | Roman Klinger

Appraisal theories explain how the cognitive evaluation of an event leads to a particular emotion. In contrast to theories of basic emotions or affect (valence/arousal), this theory has not received a lot of attention in natural language processing. Yet, in psychology it has been proven powerful: Smith and Ellsworth (1985) showed that the appraisal dimensions attention, certainty, anticipated effort, pleasantness, responsibility/control and situational control discriminate between (at least) 15 emotion classes. We study different annotation strategies for these dimensions, based on the event-focused enISEAR corpus (Troiano et al., 2019). We analyze two manual annotation settings: (1) showing the text to annotate while masking the experienced emotion label; (2) revealing the emotion associated with the text. Setting 2 enables the annotators to develop a more realistic intuition of the described event, while Setting 1 is a more standard annotation procedure, purely relying on text. We evaluate these strategies in two ways: by measuring inter-annotator agreement and by fine- tuning RoBERTa to predict appraisal variables. Our results show that knowledge of the emotion increases annotators’ reliability. Further, we evaluate a purely automatic rule-based labeling strategy (inferring appraisal from annotated emotion classes). Training on automatically assigned labels leads to a competitive performance of our classifier, even when tested on manual annotations. This is an indicator that it might be possible to automatically create appraisal corpora for every domain for which emotion corpora already exist.

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Hate Towards the Political Opponent: A Twitter Corpus Study of the 2020 US Elections on the Basis of Offensive Speech and Stance Detection
Lara Grimminger | Roman Klinger

The 2020 US Elections have been, more than ever before, characterized by social media campaigns and mutual accusations. We investigate in this paper if this manifests also in online communication of the supporters of the candidates Biden and Trump, by uttering hateful and offensive communication. We formulate an annotation task, in which we join the tasks of hateful/offensive speech detection and stance detection, and annotate 3000 Tweets from the campaign period, if they express a particular stance towards a candidate. Next to the established classes of favorable and against, we add mixed and neutral stances and also annotate if a candidate is mentioned with- out an opinion expression. Further, we an- notate if the tweet is written in an offensive style. This enables us to analyze if supporters of Joe Biden and the Democratic Party communicate differently than supporters of Donald Trump and the Republican Party. A BERT baseline classifier shows that the detection if somebody is a supporter of a candidate can be performed with high quality (.89 F1 for Trump and .91 F1 for Biden), while the detection that somebody expresses to be against a candidate is more challenging (.79 F1 and .64 F1, respectively). The automatic detection of hate/offensive speech remains challenging (with .53 F1). Our corpus is publicly available and constitutes a novel resource for computational modelling of offensive language under consideration of stances.

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Synthetic Examples Improve Cross-Target Generalization: A Study on Stance Detection on a Twitter corpus.
Costanza Conforti | Jakob Berndt | Mohammad Taher Pilehvar | Chryssi Giannitsarou | Flavio Toxvaerd | Nigel Collier

Cross-target generalization is a known problem in stance detection (SD), where systems tend to perform poorly when exposed to targets unseen during training. Given that data annotation is expensive and time-consuming, finding ways to leverage abundant unlabeled in-domain data can offer great benefits. In this paper, we apply a weakly supervised framework to enhance cross-target generalization through synthetically annotated data. We focus on Twitter SD and show experimentally that integrating synthetic data is helpful for cross-target generalization, leading to significant improvements in performance, with gains in F1 scores ranging from +3.4 to +5.1.

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Creating and Evaluating Resources for Sentiment Analysis in the Low-resource Language: Sindhi
Wazir Ali | Naveed Ali | Yong Dai | Jay Kumar | Saifullah Tumrani | Zenglin Xu

In this paper, we develop Sindhi subjective lexicon using a merger of existing English resources: NRC lexicon, list of opinion words, SentiWordNet, Sindhi-English bilingual dictionary, and collection of Sindhi modifiers. The positive or negative sentiment score is assigned to each Sindhi opinion word. Afterwards, we determine the coverage of the proposed lexicon with subjectivity analysis. Moreover, we crawl multi-domain tweet corpus of news, sports, and finance. The crawled corpus is annotated by experienced annotators using the Doccano text annotation tool. The sentiment annotated corpus is evaluated by employing support vector machine (SVM), recurrent neural network (RNN) variants, and convolutional neural network (CNN).

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Towards Emotion Recognition in Hindi-English Code-Mixed Data: A Transformer Based Approach
Anshul Wadhawan | Akshita Aggarwal

In the last few years, emotion detection in social-media text has become a popular problem due to its wide ranging application in better understanding the consumers, in psychology, in aiding human interaction with computers, designing smart systems etc. Because of the availability of huge amounts of data from social-media, which is regularly used for expressing sentiments and opinions, this problem has garnered great attention. In this paper, we present a Hinglish dataset labelled for emotion detection. We highlight a deep learning based approach for detecting emotions using bilingual word embeddings derived from FastText and Word2Vec approaches in Hindi-English code mixed tweets. We experiment with various deep learning models, including CNNs, LSTMs, Bi-directional LSTMs (with and without attention), along with transformers like BERT, RoBERTa, and ALBERT. The transformer based BERT model outperforms all current state-of-the-art models giving the best performance with an accuracy of 71.43%.

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Nearest neighbour approaches for Emotion Detection in Tweets
Olha Kaminska | Chris Cornelis | Veronique Hoste

Emotion detection is an important task that can be applied to social media data to discover new knowledge. While the use of deep learning methods for this task has been prevalent, they are black-box models, making their decisions hard to interpret for a human operator. Therefore, in this paper, we propose an approach using weighted k Nearest Neighbours (kNN), a simple, easy to implement, and explainable machine learning model. These qualities can help to enhance results’ reliability and guide error analysis. In particular, we apply the weighted kNN model to the shared emotion detection task in tweets from SemEval-2018. Tweets are represented using different text embedding methods and emotion lexicon vocabulary scores, and classification is done by an ensemble of weighted kNN models. Our best approaches obtain results competitive with state-of-the-art solutions and open up a promising alternative path to neural network methods.

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L3CubeMahaSent: A Marathi Tweet-based Sentiment Analysis Dataset
Atharva Kulkarni | Meet Mandhane | Manali Likhitkar | Gayatri Kshirsagar | Raviraj Joshi

Sentiment analysis is one of the most fundamental tasks in Natural Language Processing. Popular languages like English, Arabic, Russian, Mandarin, and also Indian languages such as Hindi, Bengali, Tamil have seen a significant amount of work in this area. However, the Marathi language which is the third most popular language in India still lags behind due to the absence of proper datasets. In this paper, we present the first major publicly available Marathi Sentiment Analysis Dataset - L3CubeMahaSent. It is curated using tweets extracted from various Maharashtrian personalities’ Twitter accounts. Our dataset consists of ~16,000 distinct tweets classified in three broad classes viz. positive, negative, and neutral. We also present the guidelines using which we annotated the tweets. Finally, we present the statistics of our dataset and baseline classification results using CNN, LSTM, ULMFiT, and BERT based models.

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Multi-Emotion Classification for Song Lyrics
Darren Edmonds | João Sedoc

Song lyrics convey a multitude of emotions to the listener and powerfully portray the emotional state of the writer or singer. This paper examines a variety of modeling approaches to the multi-emotion classification problem for songs. We introduce the Edmonds Dance dataset, a novel emotion-annotated lyrics dataset from the reader’s perspective, and annotate the dataset of Mihalcea and Strapparava (2012) at the song level. We find that models trained on relatively small song datasets achieve marginally better performance than BERT (Devlin et al., 2018) fine-tuned on large social media or dialog datasets.

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ONE: Toward ONE model, ONE algorithm, ONE corpus dedicated to sentiment analysis of Arabic/Arabizi and its dialects
Imane Guellil | Faical Azouaou | Fodil Benali | Hachani Ala-Eddine

Arabic is the official language of 22 countries, spoken by more than 400 million speakers. Each one of this country use at least on dialect for daily life conversation. Then, Arabic has at least 22 dialects. Each dialect can be written in Arabic or Arabizi Scripts. The most recent researches focus on constructing a language model and a training corpus for each dialect, in each script. Following this technique means constructing 46 different resources (by including the Modern Standard Arabic, MSA) for handling only one language. In this paper, we extract ONE corpus, and we propose ONE algorithm to automatically construct ONE training corpus using ONE classification model architecture for sentiment analysis MSA and different dialects. After manually reviewing the training corpus, the obtained results outperform all the research literature results for the targeted test corpora.

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Me, myself, and ire: Effects of automatic transcription quality on emotion, sarcasm, and personality detection
John Culnan | Seongjin Park | Meghavarshini Krishnaswamy | Rebecca Sharp

In deployment, systems that use speech as input must make use of automated transcriptions. Yet, typically when these systems are evaluated, gold transcriptions are assumed. We explicitly examine the impact of transcription errors on the downstream performance of a multi-modal system on three related tasks from three datasets: emotion, sarcasm, and personality detection. We include three separate transcription tools and show that while all automated transcriptions propagate errors that substantially impact downstream performance, the open-source tools fair worse than the paid tool, though not always straightforwardly, and word error rates do not correlate well with downstream performance. We further find that the inclusion of audio features partially mitigates transcription errors, but that a naive usage of a multi-task setup does not.

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Emotional RobBERT and Insensitive BERTje: Combining Transformers and Affect Lexica for Dutch Emotion Detection
Luna De Bruyne | Orphee De Clercq | Veronique Hoste

In a first step towards improving Dutch emotion detection, we try to combine the Dutch transformer models BERTje and RobBERT with lexicon-based methods. We propose two architectures: one in which lexicon information is directly injected into the transformer model and a meta-learning approach where predictions from transformers are combined with lexicon features. The models are tested on 1,000 Dutch tweets and 1,000 captions from TV-shows which have been manually annotated with emotion categories and dimensions. We find that RobBERT clearly outperforms BERTje, but that directly adding lexicon information to transformers does not improve performance. In the meta-learning approach, lexicon information does have a positive effect on BERTje, but not on RobBERT. This suggests that more emotional information is already contained within this latter language model.

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EmpNa at WASSA 2021: A Lightweight Model for the Prediction of Empathy, Distress and Emotions from Reactions to News Stories
Giuseppe Vettigli | Antonio Sorgente

This paper describes our submission for the WASSA 2021 shared task regarding the prediction of empathy, distress and emotions from news stories. The solution is based on combining the frequency of words, lexicon-based information, demographics of the annotators and personality of the annotators into a linear model. The prediction of empathy and distress is performed using Linear Regression while the prediction of emotions is performed using Logistic Regression. Both tasks are performed using the same features. Our models rank 4th for the prediction of emotions and 2nd for the prediction of empathy and distress. These results are particularly interesting when considered that the computational requirements of the solution are minimal.

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MilaNLP @ WASSA: Does BERT Feel Sad When You Cry?
Tommaso Fornaciari | Federico Bianchi | Debora Nozza | Dirk Hovy

The paper describes the MilaNLP team’s submission (Bocconi University, Milan) in the WASSA 2021 Shared Task on Empathy Detection and Emotion Classification. We focus on Track 2 - Emotion Classification - which consists of predicting the emotion of reactions to English news stories at the essay-level. We test different models based on multi-task and multi-input frameworks. The goal was to better exploit all the correlated information given in the data set. We find, though, that empathy as an auxiliary task in multi-task learning and demographic attributes as additional input provide worse performance with respect to single-task learning. While the result is competitive in terms of the competition, our results suggest that emotion and empathy are not related tasks - at least for the purpose of prediction.

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Team Phoenix at WASSA 2021: Emotion Analysis on News Stories with Pre-Trained Language Models
Yash Butala | Kanishk Singh | Adarsh Kumar | Shrey Shrivastava

Emotion is fundamental to humanity. The ability to perceive, understand and respond to social interactions in a human-like manner is one of the most desired capabilities in artificial agents, particularly in social-media bots. Over the past few years, computational understanding and detection of emotional aspects in language have been vital in advancing human-computer interaction. The WASSA Shared Task 2021 released a dataset of news-stories across two tracks, Track-1 for Empathy and Distress Prediction and Track-2 for Multi-Dimension Emotion prediction at the essay-level. We describe our system entry for the WASSA 2021 Shared Task (for both Track-1 and Track-2), where we leveraged the information from Pre-trained language models for Track-specific Tasks. Our proposed models achieved an Average Pearson Score of 0.417, and a Macro-F1 Score of 0.502 in Track 1 and Track 2, respectively. In the Shared Task leaderboard, we secured the fourth rank in Track 1 and the second rank in Track 2.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the 8th Workshop on Asian Translation (WAT2021)

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Proceedings of the 8th Workshop on Asian Translation (WAT2021)
Toshiaki Nakazawa | Hideki Nakayama | Isao Goto | Hideya Mino | Chenchen Ding | Raj Dabre | Anoop Kunchukuttan | Shohei Higashiyama | Hiroshi Manabe | Win Pa Pa | Shantipriya Parida | Ondřej Bojar | Chenhui Chu | Akiko Eriguchi | Kaori Abe | Yusuke Oda | Katsuhito Sudoh | Sadao Kurohashi | Pushpak Bhattacharyya

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Overview of the 8th Workshop on Asian Translation
Toshiaki Nakazawa | Hideki Nakayama | Chenchen Ding | Raj Dabre | Shohei Higashiyama | Hideya Mino | Isao Goto | Win Pa Pa | Anoop Kunchukuttan | Shantipriya Parida | Ondřej Bojar | Chenhui Chu | Akiko Eriguchi | Kaori Abe | Yusuke Oda | Sadao Kurohashi

This paper presents the results of the shared tasks from the 8th workshop on Asian translation (WAT2021). For the WAT2021, 28 teams participated in the shared tasks and 24 teams submitted their translation results for the human evaluation. We also accepted 5 research papers. About 2,100 translation results were submitted to the automatic evaluation server, and selected submissions were manually evaluated.

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NHK’s Lexically-Constrained Neural Machine Translation at WAT 2021
Hideya Mino | Kazutaka Kinugawa | Hitoshi Ito | Isao Goto | Ichiro Yamada | Takenobu Tokunaga

This paper describes the system of our team (NHK) for the WAT 2021 Japanese-English restricted machine translation task. In this task, the aim is to improve quality while maintaining consistent terminology for scientific paper translation. This task has a unique feature, where some words in a target sentence are given in addition to a source sentence. In this paper, we use a lexically-constrained neural machine translation (NMT), which concatenates the source sentence and constrained words with a special token to input them into the encoder of NMT. The key to the successful lexically-constrained NMT is the way to extract constraints from a target sentence of training data. We propose two extraction methods: proper-noun constraint and mistranslated-word constraint. These two methods consider the importance of words and fallibility of NMT, respectively. The evaluation results demonstrate the effectiveness of our lexical-constraint method.

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Input Augmentation Improves Constrained Beam Search for Neural Machine Translation: NTT at WAT 2021
Katsuki Chousa | Makoto Morishita

This paper describes our systems that were submitted to the restricted translation task at WAT 2021. In this task, the systems are required to output translated sentences that contain all given word constraints. Our system combined input augmentation and constrained beam search algorithms. Through experiments, we found that this combination significantly improves translation accuracy and can save inference time while containing all the constraints in the output. For both En->Ja and Ja->En, our systems obtained the best evaluation performances in automatic and human evaluation.

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NICT’s Neural Machine Translation Systems for the WAT21 Restricted Translation Task
Zuchao Li | Masao Utiyama | Eiichiro Sumita | Hai Zhao

This paper describes our system (Team ID: nictrb) for participating in the WAT’21 restricted machine translation task. In our submitted system, we designed a new training approach for restricted machine translation. By sampling from the translation target, we can solve the problem that ordinary training data does not have a restricted vocabulary. With the further help of constrained decoding in the inference phase, we achieved better results than the baseline, confirming the effectiveness of our solution. In addition, we also tried the vanilla and sparse Transformer as the backbone network of the model, as well as model ensembling, which further improved the final translation performance.

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Machine Translation with Pre-specified Target-side Words Using a Semi-autoregressive Model
Seiichiro Kondo | Aomi Koyama | Tomoshige Kiyuna | Tosho Hirasawa | Mamoru Komachi

We introduce our TMU Japanese-to-English system, which employs a semi-autoregressive model, to tackle the WAT 2021 restricted translation task. In this task, we translate an input sentence with the constraint that some words, called restricted target vocabularies (RTVs), must be contained in the output sentence. To satisfy this constraint, we use a semi-autoregressive model, namely, RecoverSAT, due to its ability (known as “forced translation”) to insert specified words into the output sentence. When using “forced translation,” the order of inserting RTVs is a critical problem. In this work, we aligned the source sentence and the corresponding RTVs using GIZA++. In our system, we obtain word alignment between a source sentence and the corresponding RTVs and then sort the RTVs in the order of their corresponding words or phrases in the source sentence. Using the model with sorted order RTVs, we succeeded in inserting all the RTVs into output sentences in more than 96% of the test sentences. Moreover, we confirmed that sorting RTVs improved the BLEU score compared with random order RTVs.

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NECTEC’s Participation in WAT-2021
Zar Zar Hlaing | Ye Kyaw Thu | Thazin Myint Oo | Mya Ei San | Sasiporn Usanavasin | Ponrudee Netisopakul | Thepchai Supnithi

In this paper, we report the experimental results of Machine Translation models conducted by a NECTEC team for the translation tasks of WAT-2021. Basically, our models are based on neural methods for both directions of English-Myanmar and Myanmar-English language pairs. Most of the existing Neural Machine Translation (NMT) models mainly focus on the conversion of sequential data and do not directly use syntactic information. However, we conduct multi-source neural machine translation (NMT) models using the multilingual corpora such as string data corpus, tree data corpus, or POS-tagged data corpus. The multi-source translation is an approach to exploit multiple inputs (e.g. in two different formats) to increase translation accuracy. The RNN-based encoder-decoder model with attention mechanism and transformer architectures have been carried out for our experiment. The experimental results showed that the proposed models of RNN-based architecture outperform the baseline model for English-to-Myanmar translation task, and the multi-source and shared-multi-source transformer models yield better translation results than the baseline.

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Hybrid Statistical Machine Translation for English-Myanmar: UTYCC Submission to WAT-2021
Ye Kyaw Thu | Thazin Myint Oo | Hlaing Myat Nwe | Khaing Zar Mon | Nang Aeindray Kyaw | Naing Linn Phyo | Nann Hwan Khun | Hnin Aye Thant

In this paper we describe our submissions to WAT-2021 (Nakazawa et al., 2021) for English-to-Myanmar language (Burmese) task. Our team, ID: “YCC-MT1”, focused on bringing transliteration knowledge to the decoder without changing the model. We manually extracted the transliteration word/phrase pairs from the ALT corpus and applying XML markup feature of Moses decoder (i.e. -xml-input exclusive, -xml-input inclusive). We demonstrate that hybrid translation technique can significantly improve (around 6 BLEU scores) the baseline of three well-known “Phrase-based SMT”, “Operation Sequence Model” and “Hierarchical Phrase-based SMT”. Moreover, this simple hybrid method achieved the second highest results among the submitted MT systems for English-to-Myanmar WAT2021 translation share task according to BLEU (Papineni et al., 2002) and AMFM scores (Banchs et al., 2015).

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NICT-2 Translation System at WAT-2021: Applying a Pretrained Multilingual Encoder-Decoder Model to Low-resource Language Pairs
Kenji Imamura | Eiichiro Sumita

In this paper, we present the NICT system (NICT-2) submitted to the NICT-SAP shared task at the 8th Workshop on Asian Translation (WAT-2021). A feature of our system is that we used a pretrained multilingual BART (Bidirectional and Auto-Regressive Transformer; mBART) model. Because publicly available models do not support some languages in the NICT-SAP task, we added these languages to the mBART model and then trained it using monolingual corpora extracted from Wikipedia. We fine-tuned the expanded mBART model using the parallel corpora specified by the NICT-SAP task. The BLEU scores greatly improved in comparison with those of systems without the pretrained model, including the additional languages.

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Rakuten’s Participation in WAT 2021: Examining the Effectiveness of Pre-trained Models for Multilingual and Multimodal Machine Translation
Raymond Hendy Susanto | Dongzhe Wang | Sunil Yadav | Mausam Jain | Ohnmar Htun

This paper introduces our neural machine translation systems’ participation in the WAT 2021 shared translation tasks (team ID: sakura). We participated in the (i) NICT-SAP, (ii) Japanese-English multimodal translation, (iii) Multilingual Indic, and (iv) Myanmar-English translation tasks. Multilingual approaches such as mBART (Liu et al., 2020) are capable of pre-training a complete, multilingual sequence-to-sequence model through denoising objectives, making it a great starting point for building multilingual translation systems. Our main focus in this work is to investigate the effectiveness of multilingual finetuning on such a multilingual language model on various translation tasks, including low-resource, multimodal, and mixed-domain translation. We further explore a multimodal approach based on universal visual representation (Zhang et al., 2019) and compare its performance against a unimodal approach based on mBART alone.

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BTS: Back TranScription for Speech-to-Text Post-Processor using Text-to-Speech-to-Text
Chanjun Park | Jaehyung Seo | Seolhwa Lee | Chanhee Lee | Hyeonseok Moon | Sugyeong Eo | Heuiseok Lim

With the growing popularity of smart speakers, such as Amazon Alexa, speech is becoming one of the most important modes of human-computer interaction. Automatic speech recognition (ASR) is arguably the most critical component of such systems, as errors in speech recognition propagate to the downstream components and drastically degrade the user experience. A simple and effective way to improve the speech recognition accuracy is to apply automatic post-processor to the recognition result. However, training a post-processor requires parallel corpora created by human annotators, which are expensive and not scalable. To alleviate this problem, we propose Back TranScription (BTS), a denoising-based method that can create such corpora without human labor. Using a raw corpus, BTS corrupts the text using Text-to-Speech (TTS) and Speech-to-Text (STT) systems. Then, a post-processing model can be trained to reconstruct the original text given the corrupted input. Quantitative and qualitative evaluations show that a post-processor trained using our approach is highly effective in fixing non-trivial speech recognition errors such as mishandling foreign words. We present the generated parallel corpus and post-processing platform to make our results publicly available.

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Zero-pronoun Data Augmentation for Japanese-to-English Translation
Ryokan Ri | Toshiaki Nakazawa | Yoshimasa Tsuruoka

For Japanese-to-English translation, zero pronouns in Japanese pose a challenge, since the model needs to infer and produce the corresponding pronoun in the target side of the English sentence. However, although fully resolving zero pronouns often needs discourse context, in some cases, the local context within a sentence gives clues to the inference of the zero pronoun. In this study, we propose a data augmentation method that provides additional training signals for the translation model to learn correlations between local context and zero pronouns. We show that the proposed method significantly improves the accuracy of zero pronoun translation with machine translation experiments in the conversational domain.

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Evaluation Scheme of Focal Translation for Japanese Partially Amended Statutes
Takahiro Yamakoshi | Takahiro Komamizu | Yasuhiro Ogawa | Katsuhiko Toyama

For updating the translations of Japanese statutes based on their amendments, we need to consider the translation “focality;” that is, we should only modify expressions that are relevant to the amendment and retain the others to avoid misconstruing its contents. In this paper, we introduce an evaluation metric and a corpus to improve focality evaluations. Our metric is called an Inclusive Score for DIfferential Translation: (ISDIT). ISDIT consists of two factors: (1) the n-gram recall of expressions unaffected by the amendment and (2) the n-gram precision of the output compared to the reference. This metric supersedes an existing one for focality by simultaneously calculating the translation quality of the changed expressions in addition to that of the unchanged expressions. We also newly compile a corpus for Japanese partially amendment translation that secures the focality of the post-amendment translations, while an existing evaluation corpus does not. With the metric and the corpus, we examine the performance of existing translation methods for Japanese partially amendment translations.

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TMU NMT System with Japanese BART for the Patent task of WAT 2021
Hwichan Kim | Mamoru Komachi

In this paper, we introduce our TMU Neural Machine Translation (NMT) system submitted for the Patent task (Korean Japanese and English Japanese) of 8th Workshop on Asian Translation (Nakazawa et al., 2021). Recently, several studies proposed pre-trained encoder-decoder models using monolingual data. One of the pre-trained models, BART (Lewis et al., 2020), was shown to improve translation accuracy via fine-tuning with bilingual data. However, they experimented only Romanian!English translation using English BART. In this paper, we examine the effectiveness of Japanese BART using Japan Patent Office Corpus 2.0. Our experiments indicate that Japanese BART can also improve translation accuracy in both Korean Japanese and English Japanese translations.

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System Description for Transperfect
Wiktor Stribiżew | Fred Bane | José Conceição | Anna Zaretskaya

In this paper, we describe our participation in the 2021 Workshop on Asian Translation (team ID: tpt_wat). We submitted results for all six directions of the JPC2 patent task. As a first-time participant in the task, we attempted to identify a single configuration that provided the best overall results across all language pairs. All our submissions were created using single base transformer models, trained on only the task-specific data, using a consistent configuration of hyperparameters. In contrast to the uniformity of our methods, our results vary widely across the six language pairs.

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Bering Lab’s Submissions on WAT 2021 Shared Task
Heesoo Park | Dongjun Lee

This paper presents the Bering Lab’s submission to the shared tasks of the 8th Workshop on Asian Translation (WAT 2021) on JPC2 and NICT-SAP. We participated in all tasks on JPC2 and IT domain tasks on NICT-SAP. Our approach for all tasks mainly focused on building NMT systems in domain-specific corpora. We crawled patent document pairs for English-Japanese, Chinese-Japanese, and Korean-Japanese. After cleaning noisy data, we built parallel corpus by aligning those sentences with the sentence-level similarity scores. Also, for SAP test data, we collected the OPUS dataset including three IT domain corpora. We then trained transformer on the collected dataset. Our submission ranked 1st in eight out of fourteen tasks, achieving up to an improvement of 2.87 for JPC2 and 8.79 for NICT-SAP in BLEU score .

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NLPHut’s Participation at WAT2021
Shantipriya Parida | Subhadarshi Panda | Ketan Kotwal | Amulya Ratna Dash | Satya Ranjan Dash | Yashvardhan Sharma | Petr Motlicek | Ondřej Bojar

This paper provides the description of shared tasks to the WAT 2021 by our team “NLPHut”. We have participated in the English→Hindi Multimodal translation task, English→Malayalam Multimodal translation task, and Indic Multi-lingual translation task. We have used the state-of-the-art Transformer model with language tags in different settings for the translation task and proposed a novel “region-specific” caption generation approach using a combination of image CNN and LSTM for the Hindi and Malayalam image captioning. Our submission tops in English→Malayalam Multimodal translation task (text-only translation, and Malayalam caption), and ranks second-best in English→Hindi Multimodal translation task (text-only translation, and Hindi caption). Our submissions have also performed well in the Indic Multilingual translation tasks.

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Improved English to Hindi Multimodal Neural Machine Translation
Sahinur Rahman Laskar | Abdullah Faiz Ur Rahman Khilji | Darsh Kaushik | Partha Pakray | Sivaji Bandyopadhyay

Machine translation performs automatic translation from one natural language to another. Neural machine translation attains a state-of-the-art approach in machine translation, but it requires adequate training data, which is a severe problem for low-resource language pairs translation. The concept of multimodal is introduced in neural machine translation (NMT) by merging textual features with visual features to improve low-resource pair translation. WAT2021 (Workshop on Asian Translation 2021) organizes a shared task of multimodal translation for English to Hindi. We have participated the same with team name CNLP-NITS-PP in two submissions: multimodal and text-only NMT. This work investigates phrase pairs injection via data augmentation approach and attains improvement over our previous work at WAT2020 on the same task in both text-only and multimodal NMT. We have achieved second rank on the challenge test set for English to Hindi multimodal translation where Bilingual Evaluation Understudy (BLEU) score of 39.28, Rank-based Intuitive Bilingual Evaluation Score (RIBES) 0.792097, and Adequacy-Fluency Metrics (AMFM) score 0.830230 respectively.

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IITP at WAT 2021: System description for English-Hindi Multimodal Translation Task
Baban Gain | Dibyanayan Bandyopadhyay | Asif Ekbal

Neural Machine Translation (NMT) is a predominant machine translation technology nowadays because of its end-to-end trainable flexibility. However, NMT still struggles to translate properly in low-resource settings specifically on distant language pairs. One way to overcome this is to use the information from other modalities if available. The idea is that despite differences in languages, both the source and target language speakers see the same thing and the visual representation of both the source and target is the same, which can positively assist the system. Multimodal information can help the NMT system to improve the translation by removing ambiguity on some phrases or words. We participate in the 8th Workshop on Asian Translation (WAT - 2021) for English-Hindi multimodal translation task and achieve 42.47 and 37.50 BLEU points for Evaluation and Challenge subset, respectively.

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ViTA: Visual-Linguistic Translation by Aligning Object Tags
Kshitij Gupta | Devansh Gautam | Radhika Mamidi

Multimodal Machine Translation (MMT) enriches the source text with visual information for translation. It has gained popularity in recent years, and several pipelines have been proposed in the same direction. Yet, the task lacks quality datasets to illustrate the contribution of visual modality in the translation systems. In this paper, we propose our system under the team name Volta for the Multimodal Translation Task of WAT 2021 from English to Hindi. We also participate in the textual-only subtask of the same language pair for which we use mBART, a pretrained multilingual sequence-to-sequence model. For multimodal translation, we propose to enhance the textual input by bringing the visual information to a textual domain by extracting object tags from the image. We also explore the robustness of our system by systematically degrading the source text. Finally, we achieve a BLEU score of 44.6 and 51.6 on the test set and challenge set of the multimodal task.

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TMEKU System for the WAT2021 Multimodal Translation Task
Yuting Zhao | Mamoru Komachi | Tomoyuki Kajiwara | Chenhui Chu

We introduce our TMEKU system submitted to the English-Japanese Multimodal Translation Task for WAT 2021. We participated in the Flickr30kEnt-JP task and Ambiguous MSCOCO Multimodal task under the constrained condition using only the officially provided datasets. Our proposed system employs soft alignment of word-region for multimodal neural machine translation (MNMT). The experimental results evaluated on the BLEU metric provided by the WAT 2021 evaluation site show that the TMEKU system has achieved the best performance among all the participated systems. Further analysis of the case study demonstrates that leveraging word-region alignment between the textual and visual modalities is the key to performance enhancement in our TMEKU system, which leads to better visual information use.

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Optimal Word Segmentation for Neural Machine Translation into Dravidian Languages
Prajit Dhar | Arianna Bisazza | Gertjan van Noord

Dravidian languages, such as Kannada and Tamil, are notoriously difficult to translate by state-of-the-art neural models. This stems from the fact that these languages are morphologically very rich as well as being low-resourced. In this paper, we focus on subword segmentation and evaluate Linguistically Motivated Vocabulary Reduction (LMVR) against the more commonly used SentencePiece (SP) for the task of translating from English into four different Dravidian languages. Additionally we investigate the optimal subword vocabulary size for each language. We find that SP is the overall best choice for segmentation, and that larger dictionary sizes lead to higher translation quality.

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Itihasa: A large-scale corpus for Sanskrit to English translation
Rahul Aralikatte | Miryam de Lhoneux | Anoop Kunchukuttan | Anders Søgaard

This work introduces Itihasa, a large-scale translation dataset containing 93,000 pairs of Sanskrit shlokas and their English translations. The shlokas are extracted from two Indian epics viz., The Ramayana and The Mahabharata. We first describe the motivation behind the curation of such a dataset and follow up with empirical analysis to bring out its nuances. We then benchmark the performance of standard translation models on this corpus and show that even state-of-the-art transformer architectures perform poorly, emphasizing the complexity of the dataset.

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NICT-5’s Submission To WAT 2021: MBART Pre-training And In-Domain Fine Tuning For Indic Languages
Raj Dabre | Abhisek Chakrabarty

In this paper we describe our submission to the multilingual Indic language translation wtask “MultiIndicMT” under the team name “NICT-5”. This task involves translation from 10 Indic languages into English and vice-versa. The objective of the task was to explore the utility of multilingual approaches using a variety of in-domain and out-of-domain parallel and monolingual corpora. Given the recent success of multilingual NMT pre-training we decided to explore pre-training an MBART model on a large monolingual corpus collection covering all languages in this task followed by multilingual fine-tuning on small in-domain corpora. Firstly, we observed that a small amount of pre-training followed by fine-tuning on small bilingual corpora can yield large gains over when pre-training is not used. Furthermore, multilingual fine-tuning leads to further gains in translation quality which significantly outperforms a very strong multilingual baseline that does not rely on any pre-training.

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How far can we get with one GPU in 100 hours? CoAStaL at MultiIndicMT Shared Task
Rahul Aralikatte | Héctor Ricardo Murrieta Bello | Miryam de Lhoneux | Daniel Hershcovich | Marcel Bollmann | Anders Søgaard

This work shows that competitive translation results can be obtained in a constrained setting by incorporating the latest advances in memory and compute optimization. We train and evaluate large multilingual translation models using a single GPU for a maximum of 100 hours and get within 4-5 BLEU points of the top submission on the leaderboard. We also benchmark standard baselines on the PMI corpus and re-discover well-known shortcomings of translation systems and metrics.

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IIIT Hyderabad Submission To WAT 2021: Efficient Multilingual NMT systems for Indian languages
Sourav Kumar | Salil Aggarwal | Dipti Sharma

This paper describes the work and the systems submitted by the IIIT-Hyderbad team in the WAT 2021 MultiIndicMT shared task. The task covers 10 major languages of the Indian subcontinent. For the scope of this task, we have built multilingual systems for 20 translation directions namely English-Indic (one-to- many) and Indic-English (many-to-one). Individually, Indian languages are resource poor which hampers translation quality but by leveraging multilingualism and abundant monolingual corpora, the translation quality can be substantially boosted. But the multilingual systems are highly complex in terms of time as well as computational resources. Therefore, we are training our systems by efficiently se- lecting data that will actually contribute to most of the learning process. Furthermore, we are also exploiting the language related- ness found in between Indian languages. All the comparisons were made using BLEU score and we found that our final multilingual sys- tem significantly outperforms the baselines by an average of 11.3 and 19.6 BLEU points for English-Indic (en-xx) and Indic-English (xx- en) directions, respectively.

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Language Relatedness and Lexical Closeness can help Improve Multilingual NMT: IITBombay@MultiIndicNMT WAT2021
Jyotsana Khatri | Nikhil Saini | Pushpak Bhattacharyya

Multilingual Neural Machine Translation has achieved remarkable performance by training a single translation model for multiple languages. This paper describes our submission (Team ID: CFILT-IITB) for the MultiIndicMT: An Indic Language Multilingual Task at WAT 2021. We train multilingual NMT systems by sharing encoder and decoder parameters with language embedding associated with each token in both encoder and decoder. Furthermore, we demonstrate the use of transliteration (script conversion) for Indic languages in reducing the lexical gap for training a multilingual NMT system. Further, we show improvement in performance by training a multilingual NMT system using languages of the same family, i.e., related languages.

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Samsung R&D Institute Poland submission to WAT 2021 Indic Language Multilingual Task
Adam Dobrowolski | Marcin Szymański | Marcin Chochowski | Paweł Przybysz

This paper describes the submission to the WAT 2021 Indic Language Multilingual Task by Samsung R&D Institute Poland. The task covered translation between 10 Indic Languages (Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Tamil and Telugu) and English. We combined a variety of techniques: transliteration, filtering, backtranslation, domain adaptation, knowledge-distillation and finally ensembling of NMT models. We applied an effective approach to low-resource training that consist of pretraining on backtranslations and tuning on parallel corpora. We experimented with two different domain-adaptation techniques which significantly improved translation quality when applied to monolingual corpora. We researched and applied a novel approach for finding the best hyperparameters for ensembling a number of translation models. All techniques combined gave significant improvement - up to +8 BLEU over baseline results. The quality of the models has been confirmed by the human evaluation where SRPOL models scored best for all 5 manually evaluated languages.

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Multilingual Machine Translation Systems at WAT 2021: One-to-Many and Many-to-One Transformer based NMT
Shivam Mhaskar | Aditya Jain | Aakash Banerjee | Pushpak Bhattacharyya

In this paper, we present the details of the systems that we have submitted for the WAT 2021 MultiIndicMT: An Indic Language Multilingual Task. We have submitted two separate multilingual NMT models: one for English to 10 Indic languages and another for 10 Indic languages to English. We discuss the implementation details of two separate multilingual NMT approaches, namely one-to-many and many-to-one, that makes use of a shared decoder and a shared encoder, respectively. From our experiments, we observe that the multilingual NMT systems outperforms the bilingual baseline MT systems for each of the language pairs under consideration.

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IITP-MT at WAT2021: Indic-English Multilingual Neural Machine Translation using Romanized Vocabulary
Ramakrishna Appicharla | Kamal Kumar Gupta | Asif Ekbal | Pushpak Bhattacharyya

This paper describes the systems submitted to WAT 2021 MultiIndicMT shared task by IITP-MT team. We submit two multilingual Neural Machine Translation (NMT) systems (Indic-to-English and English-to-Indic). We romanize all Indic data and create subword vocabulary which is shared between all Indic languages. We use back-translation approach to generate synthetic data which is appended to parallel corpus and used to train our models. The models are evaluated using BLEU, RIBES and AMFM scores with Indic-to-English model achieving 40.08 BLEU for Hindi-English pair and English-to-Indic model achieving 34.48 BLEU for English-Hindi pair. However, we observe that the shared romanized subword vocabulary is not helping English-to-Indic model at the time of generation, leading it to produce poor quality translations for Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam to English pairs with BLEU score of 8.51, 6.25 and 3.79 respectively.

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ANVITA Machine Translation System for WAT 2021 MultiIndicMT Shared Task
Pavanpankaj Vegi | Sivabhavani J | Biswajit Paul | Chitra Viswanathan | Prasanna Kumar K R

This paper describes ANVITA-1.0 MT system, architected for submission to WAT2021 MultiIndicMT shared task by mcairt team, where the team participated in 20 translation directions: English→Indic and Indic→English; Indic set comprised of 10 Indian languages. ANVITA-1.0 MT system comprised of two multi-lingual NMT models one for the English→Indic directions and other for the Indic→English directions with shared encoder-decoder, catering 10 language pairs and twenty translation directions. The base models were built based on Transformer architecture and trained over MultiIndicMT WAT 2021 corpora and further employed back translation and transliteration for selective data augmentation, and model ensemble for better generalization. Additionally, MultiIndicMT WAT 2021 corpora was distilled using a series of filtering operations before putting up for training. ANVITA-1.0 achieved highest AM-FM score for English→Bengali, 2nd for English→Tamil and 3rd for English→Hindi, Bengali→English directions on official test set. In general, performance achieved by ANVITA for the Indic→English directions are relatively better than that of English→Indic directions for all the 10 language pairs when evaluated using BLEU and RIBES, although the same trend is not observed consistently when AM-FM based evaluation was carried out. As compared to BLEU, RIBES and AM-FM based scoring placed ANVITA relatively better among all the task participants.
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Proceedings of the Sixth Conference on Machine Translation
Loic Barrault | Ondrej Bojar | Fethi Bougares | Rajen Chatterjee | Marta R. Costa-jussa | Christian Federmann | Mark Fishel | Alexander Fraser | Markus Freitag | Yvette Graham | Roman Grundkiewicz | Paco Guzman | Barry Haddow | Matthias Huck | Antonio Jimeno Yepes | Philipp Koehn | Tom Kocmi | Andre Martins | Makoto Morishita | Christof Monz

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Findings of the 2021 Conference on Machine Translation (WMT21)
Farhad Akhbardeh | Arkady Arkhangorodsky | Magdalena Biesialska | Ondřej Bojar | Rajen Chatterjee | Vishrav Chaudhary | Marta R. Costa-jussa | Cristina España-Bonet | Angela Fan | Christian Federmann | Markus Freitag | Yvette Graham | Roman Grundkiewicz | Barry Haddow | Leonie Harter | Kenneth Heafield | Christopher Homan | Matthias Huck | Kwabena Amponsah-Kaakyire | Jungo Kasai | Daniel Khashabi | Kevin Knight | Tom Kocmi | Philipp Koehn | Nicholas Lourie | Christof Monz | Makoto Morishita | Masaaki Nagata | Ajay Nagesh | Toshiaki Nakazawa | Matteo Negri | Santanu Pal | Allahsera Auguste Tapo | Marco Turchi | Valentin Vydrin | Marcos Zampieri

This paper presents the results of the newstranslation task, the multilingual low-resourcetranslation for Indo-European languages, thetriangular translation task, and the automaticpost-editing task organised as part of the Con-ference on Machine Translation (WMT) 2021.In the news task, participants were asked tobuild machine translation systems for any of10 language pairs, to be evaluated on test setsconsisting mainly of news stories. The taskwas also opened up to additional test suites toprobe specific aspects of translation.

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Findings of the WMT 2021 Shared Task on Large-Scale Multilingual Machine Translation
Guillaume Wenzek | Vishrav Chaudhary | Angela Fan | Sahir Gomez | Naman Goyal | Somya Jain | Douwe Kiela | Tristan Thrush | Francisco Guzmán

We present the results of the first task on Large-Scale Multilingual Machine Translation. The task consists on the many-to-many evaluation of a single model across a variety of source and target languages. This year, the task consisted on three different settings: (i) SMALL-TASK1 (Central/South-Eastern European Languages), (ii) the SMALL-TASK2 (South-East Asian Languages), and (iii) FULL-TASK (all 101 x 100 language pairs). All the tasks used the FLORES-101 dataset as the evaluation benchmark. To ensure the longevity of the dataset, the test sets were not publicly released and the models were evaluated in a controlled environment on Dynabench. There were a total of 10 participating teams for the tasks, with a total of 151 intermediate model submissions and 13 final models. This year’s result show a significant improvement over the known base-lines with +17.8 BLEU for SMALL-TASK2, +10.6 for FULL-TASK and +3.6 for SMALL-TASK1.

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GTCOM Neural Machine Translation Systems for WMT21
Chao Bei | Hao Zong

This paper describes the Global Tone Communication Co., Ltd.’s submission of the WMT21 shared news translation task. We participate in six directions: English to/from Hausa, Hindi to/from Bengali and Zulu to/from Xhosa. Our submitted systems are unconstrained and focus on multilingual translation odel, backtranslation and forward-translation. We also apply rules and language model to filter monolingual, parallel sentences and synthetic sentences.

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The University of Edinburgh’s English-German and English-Hausa Submissions to the WMT21 News Translation Task
Pinzhen Chen | Jindřich Helcl | Ulrich Germann | Laurie Burchell | Nikolay Bogoychev | Antonio Valerio Miceli Barone | Jonas Waldendorf | Alexandra Birch | Kenneth Heafield

This paper presents the University of Edinburgh’s constrained submissions of English-German and English-Hausa systems to the WMT 2021 shared task on news translation. We build En-De systems in three stages: corpus filtering, back-translation, and fine-tuning. For En-Ha we use an iterative back-translation approach on top of pre-trained En-De models and investigate vocabulary embedding mapping.

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Tune in: The AFRL WMT21 News-Translation Systems
Grant Erdmann | Jeremy Gwinnup | Tim Anderson

This paper describes the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) machine translation sys- tems and the improvements that were developed during the WMT21 evaluation campaign. This year, we explore various methods of adapting our baseline models from WMT20 and again measure improvements in performance on the Russian–English language pair.

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The TALP-UPC Participation in WMT21 News Translation Task: an mBART-based NMT Approach
Carlos Escolano | Ioannis Tsiamas | Christine Basta | Javier Ferrando | Marta R. Costa-jussa | José A. R. Fonollosa

This paper describes the submission to the WMT 2021 news translation shared task by the UPC Machine Translation group. The goal of the task is to translate German to French (De-Fr) and French to German (Fr-De). Our submission focuses on fine-tuning a pre-trained model to take advantage of monolingual data. We fine-tune mBART50 using the filtered data, and additionally, we train a Transformer model on the same data from scratch. In the experiments, we show that fine-tuning mBART50 results in 31.69 BLEU for De-Fr and 23.63 BLEU for Fr-De, which increases 2.71 and 1.90 BLEU accordingly, as compared to the model we train from scratch. Our final submission is an ensemble of these two models, further increasing 0.3 BLEU for Fr-De.

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CUNI Systems in WMT21: Revisiting Backtranslation Techniques for English-Czech NMT
Petr Gebauer | Ondřej Bojar | Vojtěch Švandelík | Martin Popel

We describe our two NMT systems submitted to the WMT2021 shared task in English-Czech news translation: CUNI-DocTransformer (document-level CUBBITT) and CUNI-Marian-Baselines. We improve the former with a better sentence-segmentation pre-processing and a post-processing for fixing errors in numbers and units. We use the latter for experiments with various backtranslation techniques.

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Ensembling of Distilled Models from Multi-task Teachers for Constrained Resource Language Pairs
Amr Hendy | Esraa A. Gad | Mohamed Abdelghaffar | Jailan S. ElMosalami | Mohamed Afify | Ahmed Y. Tawfik | Hany Hassan Awadalla

This paper describes the Microsoft Egypt Development Center (EgDC) submission to the constrained track of WMT21 shared news translation task. We focus on the three relatively low resource language pairs Bengali ↔ Hindi, English ↔ Hausa and Xhosa ↔ Zulu. To overcome the limitation of relatively low parallel data we train a multilingual model using a multitask objective employing both parallel and monolingual data. In addition, we augment the data using back translation. We also train a bilingual model incorporating back translation and knowledge distillation then combine the two models using sequence-to-sequence mapping. We see around 70% relative gain in BLEU point for En ↔ Ha and around 25% relative improvements for Bn ↔ Hi and Xh ↔ Zu compared to bilingual baselines.

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Miðeind’s WMT 2021 Submission
Haukur Barri Símonarson | Vésteinn Snæbjarnarson | Pétur Orri Ragnarson | Haukur Jónsson | Vilhjalmur Thorsteinsson

We present Miðeind’s submission for the English→Icelandic and Icelandic→English subsets of the 2021 WMT news translation task. Transformer-base models are trained for translation on parallel data to generate backtranslations teratively. A pretrained mBART-25 model is then adapted for translation using parallel data as well as the last backtranslation iteration. This adapted pretrained model is then used to re-generate backtranslations, and the training of the adapted model is continued.

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Allegro.eu Submission to WMT21 News Translation Task
Mikołaj Koszowski | Karol Grzegorczyk | Tsimur Hadeliya

We submitted two uni-directional models, one for English→Icelandic direction and other for Icelandic→English direction. Our news translation system is based on the transformer-big architecture, it makes use of corpora filtering, back-translation and forward translation applied to parallel and monolingual data alike

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Illinois Japanese ↔ English News Translation for WMT 2021
Giang Le | Shinka Mori | Lane Schwartz

This system paper describes an end-to-end NMT pipeline for the Japanese ↔ English news translation task as submitted to WMT 2021, where we explore the efficacy of techniques such as tokenizing with language-independent and language-dependent tokenizers, normalizing by orthographic conversion, creating a politeness-and-formality-aware model by implementing a tagger, back-translation, model ensembling, and n-best reranking. We use parallel corpora provided by WMT 2021 organizers for training, and development and test data from WMT 2020 for evaluation of different experiment models. The preprocessed corpora are trained with a Transformer neural network model. We found that combining various techniques described herein, such as language-independent BPE tokenization, incorporating politeness and formality tags, model ensembling, n-best reranking, and back-translation produced the best translation models relative to other experiment systems.

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MiSS@WMT21: Contrastive Learning-reinforced Domain Adaptation in Neural Machine Translation
Zuchao Li | Masao Utiyama | Eiichiro Sumita | Hai Zhao

In this paper, we describe our MiSS system that participated in the WMT21 news translation task. We mainly participated in the evaluation of the three translation directions of English-Chinese and Japanese-English translation tasks. In the systems submitted, we primarily considered wider networks, deeper networks, relative positional encoding, and dynamic convolutional networks in terms of model structure, while in terms of training, we investigated contrastive learning-reinforced domain adaptation, self-supervised training, and optimization objective switching training methods. According to the final evaluation results, a deeper, wider, and stronger network can improve translation performance in general, yet our data domain adaption method can improve performance even more. In addition, we found that switching to the use of our proposed objective during the finetune phase using relatively small domain-related data can effectively improve the stability of the model’s convergence and achieve better optimal performance.

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The Fujitsu DMATH Submissions for WMT21 News Translation and Biomedical Translation Tasks
Ander Martinez

This paper describes the Fujitsu DMATH systems used for WMT 2021 News Translation and Biomedical Translation tasks. We focused on low-resource pairs, using a simple system. We conducted experiments on English-Hausa, Xhosa-Zulu and English-Basque, and submitted the results for Xhosa→Zulu in the News Translation Task, and English→Basque in the Biomedical Translation Task, abstract and terminology translation subtasks. Our system combines BPE dropout, sub-subword features and back-translation with a Transformer (base) model, achieving good results on the evaluation sets.

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Adam Mickiewicz University’s English-Hausa Submissions to the WMT 2021 News Translation Task
Artur Nowakowski | Tomasz Dwojak

This paper presents the Adam Mickiewicz University’s (AMU) submissions to the WMT 2021 News Translation Task. The submissions focus on the English↔Hausa translation directions, which is a low-resource translation scenario between distant languages. Our approach involves thorough data cleaning, transfer learning using a high-resource language pair, iterative training, and utilization of monolingual data via back-translation. We experiment with NMT and PB-SMT approaches alike, using the base Transformer architecture for all of the NMT models while utilizing PB-SMT systems as comparable baseline solutions.

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eTranslation’s Submissions to the WMT 2021 News Translation Task
Csaba Oravecz | Katina Bontcheva | David Kolovratník | Bhavani Bhaskar | Michael Jellinghaus | Andreas Eisele

The paper describes the 3 NMT models submitted by the eTranslation team to the WMT 2021 news translation shared task. We developed systems in language pairs that are actively used in the European Commission’s eTranslation service. In the WMT news task, recent years have seen a steady increase in the need for computational resources to train deep and complex architectures to produce competitive systems. We took a different approach and explored alternative strategies focusing on data selection and filtering to improve the performance of baseline systems. In the domain constrained task for the French–German language pair our approach resulted in the best system by a significant margin in BLEU. For the other two systems (English–German and English-Czech) we tried to build competitive models using standard best practices.

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The University of Edinburgh’s Bengali-Hindi Submissions to the WMT21 News Translation Task
Proyag Pal | Alham Fikri Aji | Pinzhen Chen | Sukanta Sen

We describe the University of Edinburgh’s Bengali↔Hindi constrained systems submitted to the WMT21 News Translation task. We submitted ensembles of Transformer models built with large-scale back-translation and fine-tuned on subsets of training data retrieved based on similarity to the target domain.

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The Volctrans GLAT System: Non-autoregressive Translation Meets WMT21
Lihua Qian | Yi Zhou | Zaixiang Zheng | Yaoming Zhu | Zehui Lin | Jiangtao Feng | Shanbo Cheng | Lei Li | Mingxuan Wang | Hao Zhou

This paper describes the Volctrans’ submission to the WMT21 news translation shared task for German->English translation. We build a parallel (i.e., non-autoregressive) translation system using the Glancing Transformer, which enables fast and accurate parallel decoding in contrast to the currently prevailing autoregressive models. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first parallel translation system that can be scaled to such a practical scenario like WMT competition. More importantly, our parallel translation system achieves the best BLEU score (35.0) on German->English translation task, outperforming all strong autoregressive counterparts.

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NVIDIA NeMo’s Neural Machine Translation Systems for English-German and English-Russian News and Biomedical Tasks at WMT21
Sandeep Subramanian | Oleksii Hrinchuk | Virginia Adams | Oleksii Kuchaiev

This paper provides an overview of NVIDIA NeMo’s neural machine translation systems for the constrained data track of the WMT21 News and Biomedical Shared Translation Tasks. Our news task submissions for English-German (En-De) and English-Russian (En-Ru) are built on top of a baseline transformer-based sequence-to-sequence model (CITATION). Specifically, we use a combination of 1) checkpoint averaging 2) model scaling 3) data augmentation with backtranslation and knowledge distillation from right-to-left factorized models 4) finetuning on test sets from previous years 5) model ensembling 6) shallow fusion decoding with transformer language models and 7) noisy channel re-ranking. Additionally, our biomedical task submission for English ↔ Russian uses a biomedically biased vocabulary and is trained from scratch on news task data, medically relevant text curated from the news task dataset, and biomedical data provided by the shared task. Our news system achieves a sacreBLEU score of 39.5 on the WMT’20 En-De test set outperforming the best submission from last year’s task of 38.8. Our biomedical task Ru-En and En-Ru systems reach BLEU scores of 43.8 and 40.3 respectively on the WMT’20 Biomedical Task Test set, outperforming the previous year’s best submissions.

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Facebook AI’s WMT21 News Translation Task Submission
Chau Tran | Shruti Bhosale | James Cross | Philipp Koehn | Sergey Edunov | Angela Fan

We describe Facebook’s multilingual model submission to the WMT2021 shared task on news translation. We participate in 14 language directions: English to and from Czech, German, Hausa, Icelandic, Japanese, Russian, and Chinese. To develop systems covering all these directions, we focus on multilingual models. We utilize data from all available sources — WMT, large-scale data mining, and in-domain backtranslation — to create high quality bilingual and multilingual baselines. Subsequently, we investigate strategies for scaling multilingual model size, such that one system has sufficient capacity for high quality representations of all eight languages. Our final submission is an ensemble of dense and sparse Mixture-of-Expert multilingual translation models, followed by finetuning on in-domain news data and noisy channel reranking. Compared to previous year’s winning submissions, our multilingual system improved the translation quality on all language directions, with an average improvement of 2.0 BLEU. In the WMT2021 task, our system ranks first in 10 directions based on automatic evaluation.

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Tencent Translation System for the WMT21 News Translation Task
Longyue Wang | Mu Li | Fangxu Liu | Shuming Shi | Zhaopeng Tu | Xing Wang | Shuangzhi Wu | Jiali Zeng | Wen Zhang

This paper describes Tencent Translation systems for the WMT21 shared task. We participate in the news translation task on three language pairs: Chinese-English, English-Chinese and German-English. Our systems are built on various Transformer models with novel techniques adapted from our recent research work. First, we combine different data augmentation methods including back-translation, forward-translation and right-to-left training to enlarge the training data. We also apply language coverage bias, data rejuvenation and uncertainty-based sampling approaches to select content-relevant and high-quality data from large parallel and monolingual corpora. Expect for in-domain fine-tuning, we also propose a fine-grained “one model one domain” approach to model characteristics of different news genres at fine-tuning and decoding stages. Besides, we use greed-based ensemble algorithm and transductive ensemble method to further boost our systems. Based on our success in the last WMT, we continuously employed advanced techniques such as large batch training, data selection and data filtering. Finally, our constrained Chinese-English system achieves 33.4 case-sensitive BLEU score, which is the highest among all submissions. The German-English system is ranked at second place accordingly.

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HW-TSC’s Participation in the WMT 2021 News Translation Shared Task
Daimeng Wei | Zongyao Li | Zhanglin Wu | Zhengzhe Yu | Xiaoyu Chen | Hengchao Shang | Jiaxin Guo | Minghan Wang | Lizhi Lei | Min Zhang | Hao Yang | Ying Qin

This paper presents the submission of Huawei Translate Services Center (HW-TSC) to the WMT 2021 News Translation Shared Task. We participate in 7 language pairs, including Zh/En, De/En, Ja/En, Ha/En, Is/En, Hi/Bn, and Xh/Zu in both directions under the constrained condition. We use Transformer architecture and obtain the best performance via multiple variants with larger parameter sizes. We perform detailed pre-processing and filtering on the provided large-scale bilingual and monolingual datasets. Several commonly used strategies are used to train our models, such as Back Translation, Forward Translation, Multilingual Translation, Ensemble Knowledge Distillation, etc. Our submission obtains competitive results in the final evaluation.

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LISN @ WMT 2021
Jitao Xu | Minh Quang Pham | Sadaf Abdul Rauf | François Yvon

This paper describes LISN’s submissions to two shared tasks at WMT’21. For the biomedical translation task, we have developed resource-heavy systems for the English-French language pair, using both out-of-domain and in-domain corpora. The target genre for this task (scientific abstracts) corresponds to texts that often have a standardized structure. Our systems attempt to take this structure into account using a hierarchical system of sentence-level tags. Translation systems were also prepared for the News task for the French-German language pair. The challenge was to perform unsupervised adaptation to the target domain (financial news). For this, we explored the potential of retrieval-based strategies, where sentences that are similar to test instances are used to prime the decoder.

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WeChat Neural Machine Translation Systems for WMT21
Xianfeng Zeng | Yijin Liu | Ernan Li | Qiu Ran | Fandong Meng | Peng Li | Jinan Xu | Jie Zhou

This paper introduces WeChat AI’s participation in WMT 2021 shared news translation task on English->Chinese, English->Japanese, Japanese->English and English->German. Our systems are based on the Transformer (Vaswani et al., 2017) with several novel and effective variants. In our experiments, we employ data filtering, large-scale synthetic data generation (i.e., back-translation, knowledge distillation, forward-translation, iterative in-domain knowledge transfer), advanced finetuning approaches, and boosted Self-BLEU based model ensemble. Our constrained systems achieve 36.9, 46.9, 27.8 and 31.3 case-sensitive BLEU scores on English->Chinese, English->Japanese, Japanese->English and English->German, respectively. The BLEU scores of English->Chinese, English->Japanese and Japanese->English are the highest among all submissions, and that of English->German is the highest among all constrained submissions.

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Small Model and In-Domain Data Are All You Need
Hui Zeng

I participated in the WMT shared news translation task and focus on one high resource language pair: English and Chinese (two directions, Chinese to English and English to Chinese). The submitted systems (ZengHuiMT) focus on data cleaning, data selection, back translation and model ensemble. The techniques I used for data filtering and selection include filtering by rules, language model and word alignment. I used a base translation model trained on initial corpus to obtain the target versions of the WMT21 test sets, then I used language models to find out the monolingual data that is most similar to the target version of test set, such monolingual data was then used to do back translation. On the test set, my best submitted systems achieve 35.9 and 32.2 BLEU for English to Chinese and Chinese to English directions respectively, which are quite high for a small model.

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The Mininglamp Machine Translation System for WMT21
Shiyu Zhao | Xiaopu Li | Minghui Wu | Jie Hao

This paper describes Mininglamp neural machine translation systems of the WMT2021 news translation tasks. We have participated in eight directions translation tasks for news text including Chinese to/from English, Hausa to/from English, German to/from English and French to/from German. Our fundamental system was based on Transformer architecture, with wider or smaller construction for different news translation tasks. We mainly utilized the method of back-translation, knowledge distillation and fine-tuning to boost single model, while the ensemble was used to combine single models. Our final submission has ranked first for the English to/from Hausa task.

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The NiuTrans Machine Translation Systems for WMT21
Shuhan Zhou | Tao Zhou | Binghao Wei | Yingfeng Luo | Yongyu Mu | Zefan Zhou | Chenglong Wang | Xuanjun Zhou | Chuanhao Lv | Yi Jing | Laohu Wang | Jingnan Zhang | Canan Huang | Zhongxiang Yan | Chi Hu | Bei Li | Tong Xiao | Jingbo Zhu

This paper describes NiuTrans neural machine translation systems of the WMT 2021 news translation tasks. We made submissions to 9 language directions, including English2Chinese, Japanese, Russian, Icelandic and English2Hausa tasks. Our primary systems are built on several effective variants of Transformer, e.g., Transformer-DLCL, ODE-Transformer. We also utilize back-translation, knowledge distillation, post-ensemble, and iterative fine-tuning techniques to enhance the model performance further.

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Improving Similar Language Translation With Transfer Learning
Ife Adebara | Muhammad Abdul-Mageed

We investigate transfer learning based on pre-trained neural machine translation models to translate between (low-resource) similar languages. This work is part of our contribution to the WMT 2021 Similar Languages Translation Shared Task where we submitted models for different language pairs, including French-Bambara, Spanish-Catalan, and Spanish-Portuguese in both directions. Our models for Catalan-Spanish (82.79 BLEU)and Portuguese-Spanish (87.11 BLEU) rank top 1 in the official shared task evaluation, and we are the only team to submit models for the French-Bambara pairs.

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T4T Solution: WMT21 Similar Language Task for the Spanish-Catalan and Spanish-Portuguese Language Pair
Miguel Canals | Marc Raventós Tato

The main idea of this solution has been to focus on corpus cleaning and preparation and after that, use an out of box solution (OpenNMT) with its default published transformer model. To prepare the corpus, we have used set of standard tools (as Moses scripts or python packages), but also, among other python scripts, a python custom tokenizer with the ability to replace numbers for variables, solve the upper/lower case issue of the vocabulary and provide good segmentation for most of the punctuation. We also have started a line to clean corpus based on statistical probability estimation of source-target corpus, with unclear results. Also, we have run some tests with syllabical word segmentation, again with unclear results, so at the end, after word sentence tokenization we have used BPE SentencePiece for subword units to feed OpenNMT.

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Neural Machine Translation for Tamil–Telugu Pair
Sahinur Rahman Laskar | Bishwaraj Paul | Prottay Kumar Adhikary | Partha Pakray | Sivaji Bandyopadhyay

The neural machine translation approach has gained popularity in machine translation because of its context analysing ability and its handling of long-term dependency issues. We have participated in the WMT21 shared task of similar language translation on a Tamil-Telugu pair with the team name: CNLP-NITS. In this task, we utilized monolingual data via pre-train word embeddings in transformer model based neural machine translation to tackle the limitation of parallel corpus. Our model has achieved a bilingual evaluation understudy (BLEU) score of 4.05, rank-based intuitive bilingual evaluation score (RIBES) score of 24.80 and translation edit rate (TER) score of 97.24 for both Tamil-to-Telugu and Telugu-to-Tamil translations respectively.

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Low Resource Similar Language Neural Machine Translation for Tamil-Telugu
Vandan Mujadia | Dipti Sharma

This paper describes the participation of team oneNLP (LTRC, IIIT-Hyderabad) for the WMT 2021 task, similar language translation. We experimented with transformer based Neural Machine Translation and explored the use of language similarity for Tamil-Telugu and Telugu-Tamil. We incorporated use of different subword configurations, script conversion and single model training for both directions as exploratory experiments.

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Similar Language Translation for Catalan, Portuguese and Spanish Using Marian NMT
Reinhard Rapp

This paper describes the SEBAMAT contribution to the 2021 WMT Similar Language Translation shared task. Using the Marian neural machine translation toolkit, translation systems based on Google’s transformer architecture were built in both directions of Catalan–Spanish and Portuguese–Spanish. The systems were trained in two contrastive parameter settings (different vocabulary sizes for byte pair encoding) using only the parallel but not the comparable corpora provided by the shared task organizers. According to their official evaluation results, the SEBAMAT system turned out to be competitive with rankings among the top teams and BLEU scores between 38 and 47 for the language pairs involving Portuguese and between 76 and 80 for the language pairs involving Catalan.

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NITK-UoH: Tamil-Telugu Machine Translation Systems for the WMT21 Similar Language Translation Task
Richard Saldanha | Ananthanarayana V. S | Anand Kumar M | Parameswari Krishnamurthy

In this work, two Neural Machine Translation (NMT) systems have been developed and evaluated as part of the bidirectional Tamil-Telugu similar languages translation subtask in WMT21. The OpenNMT-py toolkit has been used to create quick prototypes of the systems, following which models have been trained on the training datasets containing the parallel corpus and finally the models have been evaluated on the dev datasets provided as part of the task. Both the systems have been trained on a DGX station with 4 -V100 GPUs. The first NMT system in this work is a Transformer based 6 layer encoder-decoder model, trained for 100000 training steps, whose configuration is similar to the one provided by OpenNMT-py and this is used to create a model for bidirectional translation. The second NMT system contains two unidirectional translation models with the same configuration as the first system, with the addition of utilizing Byte Pair Encoding (BPE) for subword tokenization through the pre-trained MultiBPEmb model. Based on the dev dataset evaluation metrics for both the systems, the first system i.e. the vanilla Transformer model has been submitted as the Primary system. Since there were no improvements in the metrics during training of the second system with BPE, it has been submitted as a contrastive system.

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A3-108 Machine Translation System for Similar Language Translation Shared Task 2021
Saumitra Yadav | Manish Shrivastava

In this paper, we describe our submissions for the Similar Language Translation Shared Task 2021. We built 3 systems in each direction for the Tamil ⇐⇒ Telugu language pair. This paper outlines experiments with various tokenization schemes to train statistical models. We also report the configuration of the submitted systems and results produced by them.

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Netmarble AI Center’s WMT21 Automatic Post-Editing Shared Task Submission
Shinhyeok Oh | Sion Jang | Hu Xu | Shounan An | Insoo Oh

This paper describes Netmarble’s submission to WMT21 Automatic Post-Editing (APE) Shared Task for the English-German language pair. First, we propose a Curriculum Training Strategy in training stages. Facebook Fair’s WMT19 news translation model was chosen to engage the large and powerful pre-trained neural networks. Then, we post-train the translation model with different levels of data at each training stages. As the training stages go on, we make the system learn to solve multiple tasks by adding extra information at different training stages gradually. We also show a way to utilize the additional data in large volume for APE tasks. For further improvement, we apply Multi-Task Learning Strategy with the Dynamic Weight Average during the fine-tuning stage. To fine-tune the APE corpus with limited data, we add some related subtasks to learn a unified representation. Finally, for better performance, we leverage external translations as augmented machine translation (MT) during the post-training and fine-tuning. As experimental results show, our APE system significantly improves the translations of provided MT results by -2.848 and +3.74 on the development dataset in terms of TER and BLEU, respectively. It also demonstrates its effectiveness on the test dataset with higher quality than the development dataset.

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Adapting Neural Machine Translation for Automatic Post-Editing
Abhishek Sharma | Prabhakar Gupta | Anil Nelakanti

Automatic post-editing (APE) models are usedto correct machine translation (MT) system outputs by learning from human post-editing patterns. We present the system used in our submission to the WMT’21 Automatic Post-Editing (APE) English-German (En-De) shared task. We leverage the state-of-the-art MT system (Ng et al., 2019) for this task. For further improvements, we adapt the MT model to the task domain by using WikiMatrix (Schwenket al., 2021) followed by fine-tuning with additional APE samples from previous editions of the shared task (WMT-16,17,18) and ensembling the models. Our systems beat the baseline on TER scores on the WMT’21 test set.

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ISTIC’s Triangular Machine Translation System for WMT2021
Hangcheng Guo | Wenbin Liu | Yanqing He | Tian Lan | Hongjiao Xu | Zhenfeng Wu | You Pan

This paper describes the ISTIC’s submission to the Triangular Machine Translation Task of Russian-to-Chinese machine translation for WMT’ 2021. In order to fully utilize the provided corpora and promote the translation performance from Russian to Chinese, the pivot method is used in our system which pipelines the Russian-to-English translator and the English-to-Chinese translator to form a Russian-to-Chinese translator. Our system is based on the Transformer architecture and several effective strategies are adopted to improve the quality of translation, including corpus filtering, data pre-processing, system combination and model ensemble.

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HW-TSC’s Participation in the WMT 2021 Triangular MT Shared Task
Zongyao Li | Daimeng Wei | Hengchao Shang | Xiaoyu Chen | Zhanglin Wu | Zhengzhe Yu | Jiaxin Guo | Minghan Wang | Lizhi Lei | Min Zhang | Hao Yang | Ying Qin

This paper presents the submission of Huawei Translation Service Center (HW-TSC) to WMT 2021 Triangular MT Shared Task. We participate in the Russian-to-Chinese task under the constrained condition. We use Transformer architecture and obtain the best performance via a variant with larger parameter sizes. We perform detailed data pre-processing and filtering on the provided large-scale bilingual data. Several strategies are used to train our models, such as Multilingual Translation, Back Translation, Forward Translation, Data Denoising, Average Checkpoint, Ensemble, Fine-tuning, etc. Our system obtains 32.5 BLEU on the dev set and 27.7 BLEU on the test set, the highest score among all submissions.

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DUTNLP Machine Translation System for WMT21 Triangular Translation Task
Huan Liu | Junpeng Liu | Kaiyu Huang | Degen Huang

This paper describes DUT-NLP Lab’s submission to the WMT-21 triangular machine translation shared task. The participants are not allowed to use other data and the translation direction of this task is Russian-to-Chinese. In this task, we use the Transformer as our baseline model, and integrate several techniques to enhance the performance of the baseline, including data filtering, data selection, fine-tuning, and post-editing. Further, to make use of the English resources, such as Russian/English and Chinese/English parallel data, the relationship triangle is constructed by multilingual neural machine translation systems. As a result, our submission achieves a BLEU score of 21.9 in Russian-to-Chinese.

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Pivot Based Transfer Learning for Neural Machine Translation: CFILT IITB @ WMT 2021 Triangular MT
Shivam Mhaskar | Pushpak Bhattacharyya

In this paper, we discuss the various techniques that we used to implement the Russian-Chinese machine translation system for the Triangular MT task at WMT 2021. Neural Machine translation systems based on transformer architecture have an encoder-decoder architecture, which are trained end-to-end and require a large amount of parallel corpus to produce good quality translations. This is the reason why neural machine translation systems are referred to as data hungry. Such a large amount of parallel corpus is majorly available for language pairs which include English and not for non-English language pairs. This is a major problem in building neural machine translation systems for non-English language pairs. We try to utilize the resources of the English language to improve the translation of non-English language pairs. We use the pivot language, that is English, to leverage transfer learning to improve the quality of Russian-Chinese translation. Compared to the baseline transformer-based neural machine translation system, we observe that the pivot language-based transfer learning technique gives a higher BLEU score.

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Papago’s Submissions to the WMT21 Triangular Translation Task
Jeonghyeok Park | Hyunjoong Kim | Hyunchang Cho

This paper describes Naver Papago’s submission to the WMT21 shared triangular MT task to enhance the non-English MT system with tri-language parallel data. The provided parallel data are Russian-Chinese (direct), Russian-English (indirect), and English-Chinese (indirect) data. This task aims to improve the quality of the Russian-to-Chinese MT system by exploiting the direct and indirect parallel re- sources. The direct parallel data is noisy data crawled from the web. To alleviate the issue, we conduct extensive experiments to find effective data filtering methods. With the empirical knowledge that the performance of bilingual MT is better than multi-lingual MT and related experiment results, we approach this task as bilingual MT, where the two indirect data are transformed to direct data. In addition, we use the Transformer, a robust translation model, as our baseline and integrate several techniques, averaging checkpoints, model ensemble, and re-ranking. Our final system provides a 12.7 BLEU points improvement over a baseline system on the WMT21 triangular MT development set. In the official evalua- tion of the test set, ours is ranked 2nd in terms of BLEU scores.

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Machine Translation of Low-Resource Indo-European Languages
Wei-Rui Chen | Muhammad Abdul-Mageed

In this work, we investigate methods for the challenging task of translating between low- resource language pairs that exhibit some level of similarity. In particular, we consider the utility of transfer learning for translating between several Indo-European low-resource languages from the Germanic and Romance language families. In particular, we build two main classes of transfer-based systems to study how relatedness can benefit the translation performance. The primary system fine-tunes a model pre-trained on a related language pair and the contrastive system fine-tunes one pre-trained on an unrelated language pair. Our experiments show that although relatedness is not necessary for transfer learning to work, it does benefit model performance.

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CUNI systems for WMT21: Multilingual Low-Resource Translation for Indo-European Languages Shared Task
Josef Jon | Michal Novák | João Paulo Aires | Dusan Varis | Ondřej Bojar

This paper describes Charles University sub-mission for Terminology translation shared task at WMT21. The objective of this task is to design a system which translates certain terms based on a provided terminology database, while preserving high overall translation quality. We competed in English-French language pair. Our approach is based on providing the desired translations alongside the input sentence and training the model to use these provided terms. We lemmatize the terms both during the training and inference, to allow the model to learn how to produce correct surface forms of the words, when they differ from the forms provided in the terminology database.

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Transfer Learning with Shallow Decoders: BSC at WMT2021’s Multilingual Low-Resource Translation for Indo-European Languages Shared Task
Ksenia Kharitonova | Ona de Gibert Bonet | Jordi Armengol-Estapé | Mar Rodriguez i Alvarez | Maite Melero

This paper describes the participation of the BSC team in the WMT2021’s Multilingual Low-Resource Translation for Indo-European Languages Shared Task. The system aims to solve the Subtask 2: Wikipedia cultural heritage articles, which involves translation in four Romance languages: Catalan, Italian, Occitan and Romanian. The submitted system is a multilingual semi-supervised machine translation model. It is based on a pre-trained language model, namely XLM-RoBERTa, that is later fine-tuned with parallel data obtained mostly from OPUS. Unlike other works, we only use XLM to initialize the encoder and randomly initialize a shallow decoder. The reported results are robust and perform well for all tested languages.

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EdinSaar@WMT21: North-Germanic Low-Resource Multilingual NMT
Svetlana Tchistiakova | Jesujoba Alabi | Koel Dutta Chowdhury | Sourav Dutta | Dana Ruiter

We describe the EdinSaar submission to the shared task of Multilingual Low-Resource Translation for North Germanic Languages at the Sixth Conference on Machine Translation (WMT2021). We submit multilingual translation models for translations to/from Icelandic (is), Norwegian-Bokmal (nb), and Swedish (sv). We employ various experimental approaches, including multilingual pre-training, back-translation, fine-tuning, and ensembling. In most translation directions, our models outperform other submitted systems.

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TenTrans Multilingual Low-Resource Translation System for WMT21 Indo-European Languages Task
Han Yang | Bojie Hu | Wanying Xie | Ambyera Han | Pan Liu | Jinan Xu | Qi Ju

This paper describes TenTrans’ submission to WMT21 Multilingual Low-Resource Translation shared task for the Romance language pairs. This task focuses on improving translation quality from Catalan to Occitan, Romanian and Italian, with the assistance of related high-resource languages. We mainly utilize back-translation, pivot-based methods, multilingual models, pre-trained model fine-tuning, and in-domain knowledge transfer to improve the translation quality. On the test set, our best-submitted system achieves an average of 43.45 case-sensitive BLEU scores across all low-resource pairs. Our data, code, and pre-trained models used in this work are available in TenTrans evaluation examples.

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The University of Maryland, College Park Submission to Large-Scale Multilingual Shared Task at WMT 2021
Saptarashmi Bandyopadhyay | Tasnim Kabir | Zizhen Lian | Marine Carpuat

This paper describes the system submitted to Large-Scale Multilingual Shared Task (Small Task #2) at WMT 2021. It is based on the massively multilingual open-source model FLORES101_MM100 model, with selective fine-tuning. Our best-performing system reported a 15.72 average BLEU score for the task.

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To Optimize, or Not to Optimize, That Is the Question: TelU-KU Models for WMT21 Large-Scale Multilingual Machine Translation
Sari Dewi Budiwati | Tirana Fatyanosa | Mahendra Data | Dedy Rahman Wijaya | Patrick Adolf Telnoni | Arie Ardiyanti Suryani | Agus Pratondo | Masayoshi Aritsugi

We describe TelU-KU models of large-scale multilingual machine translation for five Southeast Asian languages: Javanese, Indonesian, Malay, Tagalog, Tamil, and English. We explore a variation of hyperparameters of flores101_mm100_175M model using random search with 10% of datasets to improve BLEU scores of all thirty language pairs. We submitted two models, TelU-KU-175M and TelU-KU- 175M_HPO, with average BLEU scores of 12.46 and 13.19, respectively. Our models show improvement in most language pairs after optimizing the hyperparameters. We also identified three language pairs that obtained a BLEU score of more than 15 while using less than 70 sentences of the training dataset: Indonesian-Tagalog, Tagalog-Indonesian, and Malay-Tagalog.

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MMTAfrica: Multilingual Machine Translation for African Languages
Chris Chinenye Emezue | Bonaventure F. P. Dossou

In this paper, we focus on the task of multilingual machine translation for African languages and describe our contribution in the 2021 WMT Shared Task: Large-Scale Multilingual Machine Translation. We introduce MMTAfrica, the first many-to-many multilingual translation system for six African languages: Fon (fon), Igbo (ibo), Kinyarwanda (kin), Swahili/Kiswahili (swa), Xhosa (xho), and Yoruba (yor) and two non-African languages: English (eng) and French (fra). For multilingual translation concerning African languages, we introduce a novel backtranslation and reconstruction objective, BT&REC, inspired by the random online back translation and T5 modelling framework respectively, to effectively leverage monolingual data. Additionally, we report improvements from MMTAfrica over the FLORES 101 benchmarks (spBLEU gains ranging from +0.58 in Swahili to French to +19.46 in French to Xhosa).

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The LMU Munich System for the WMT 2021 Large-Scale Multilingual Machine Translation Shared Task
Wen Lai | Jindřich Libovický | Alexander Fraser

This paper describes the submission of LMU Munich to the WMT 2021 multilingual machine translation task for small track #1, which studies translation between 6 languages (Croatian, Hungarian, Estonian, Serbian, Macedonian, English) in 30 directions. We investigate the extent to which bilingual translation systems can influence multilingual translation systems. More specifically, we trained 30 bilingual translation systems, covering all language pairs, and used data augmentation technologies such as back-translation and knowledge distillation to improve the multilingual translation systems. Our best translation system scores 5 to 6 BLEU higher than a strong baseline system provided by the organizers. As seen in the dynalab leaderboard, our submission is the only fully constrained submission that uses only the corpus provided by the organizers and does not use any pre-trained models.

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Back-translation for Large-Scale Multilingual Machine Translation
Baohao Liao | Shahram Khadivi | Sanjika Hewavitharana

This paper illustrates our approach to the shared task on large-scale multilingual machine translation in the sixth conference on machine translation (WMT-21). In this work, we aim to build a single multilingual translation system with a hypothesis that a universal cross-language representation leads to better multilingual translation performance. We extend the exploration of different back-translation methods from bilingual translation to multilingual translation. Better performance is obtained by the constrained sampling method, which is different from the finding of the bilingual translation. Besides, we also explore the effect of vocabularies and the amount of synthetic data. Surprisingly, the smaller size of vocabularies perform better, and the extensive monolingual English data offers a modest improvement. We submitted to both the small tasks and achieve the second place.

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Maastricht University’s Large-Scale Multilingual Machine Translation System for WMT 2021
Danni Liu | Jan Niehues

We present our development of the multilingual machine translation system for the large-scale multilingual machine translation task at WMT 2021. Starting form the provided baseline system, we investigated several techniques to improve the translation quality on the target subset of languages. We were able to significantly improve the translation quality by adapting the system towards the target subset of languages and by generating synthetic data using the initial model. Techniques successfully applied in zero-shot multilingual machine translation (e.g. similarity regularizer) only had a minor effect on the final translation performance.

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Data Processing Matters: SRPH-Konvergen AI’s Machine Translation System for WMT’21
Lintang Sutawika | Jan Christian Blaise Cruz

In this paper, we describe the submission of the joint Samsung Research Philippines-Konvergen AI team for the WMT’21 Large Scale Multilingual Translation Task - Small Track 2. We submit a standard Seq2Seq Transformer model to the shared task without any training or architecture tricks, relying mainly on the strength of our data preprocessing techniques to boost performance. Our final submission model scored 22.92 average BLEU on the FLORES-101 devtest set, and scored 22.97 average BLEU on the contest’s hidden test set, ranking us sixth overall. Despite using only a standard Transformer, our model ranked first in Indonesian to Javanese, showing that data preprocessing matters equally, if not more, than cutting edge model architectures and training techniques.

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TenTrans Large-Scale Multilingual Machine Translation System for WMT21
Wanying Xie | Bojie Hu | Han Yang | Dong Yu | Qi Ju

This paper describes TenTrans large-scale multilingual machine translation system for WMT 2021. We participate in the Small Track 2 in five South East Asian languages, thirty directions: Javanese, Indonesian, Malay, Tagalog, Tamil, English. We mainly utilized forward/back-translation, in-domain data selection, knowledge distillation, and gradual fine-tuning from the pre-trained model FLORES-101. We find that forward/back-translation significantly improves the translation results, data selection and gradual fine-tuning are particularly effective during adapting domain, while knowledge distillation brings slight performance improvement. Also, model averaging is used to further improve the translation performance based on these systems. Our final system achieves an average BLEU score of 28.89 across thirty directions on the test set.

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Multilingual Machine Translation Systems from Microsoft for WMT21 Shared Task
Jian Yang | Shuming Ma | Haoyang Huang | Dongdong Zhang | Li Dong | Shaohan Huang | Alexandre Muzio | Saksham Singhal | Hany Hassan | Xia Song | Furu Wei

This report describes Microsoft’s machine translation systems for the WMT21 shared task on large-scale multilingual machine translation. We participated in all three evaluation tracks including Large Track and two Small Tracks where the former one is unconstrained and the latter two are fully constrained. Our model submissions to the shared task were initialized with DeltaLM, a generic pre-trained multilingual encoder-decoder model, and fine-tuned correspondingly with the vast collected parallel data and allowed data sources according to track settings, together with applying progressive learning and iterative back-translation approaches to further improve the performance. Our final submissions ranked first on three tracks in terms of the automatic evaluation metric.

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HW-TSC’s Participation in the WMT 2021 Large-Scale Multilingual Translation Task
Zhengzhe Yu | Daimeng Wei | Zongyao Li | Hengchao Shang | Xiaoyu Chen | Zhanglin Wu | Jiaxin Guo | Minghan Wang | Lizhi Lei | Min Zhang | Hao Yang | Ying Qin

This paper presents the submission of Huawei Translation Services Center (HW-TSC) to the WMT 2021 Large-Scale Multilingual Translation Task. We participate in Samll Track #2, including 6 languages: Javanese (Jv), Indonesian (Id), Malay (Ms), Tagalog (Tl), Tamil (Ta) and English (En) with 30 directions under the constrained condition. We use Transformer architecture and obtain the best performance via multiple variants with larger parameter sizes. We train a single multilingual model to translate all the 30 directions. We perform detailed pre-processing and filtering on the provided large-scale bilingual and monolingual datasets. Several commonly used strategies are used to train our models, such as Back Translation, Forward Translation, Ensemble Knowledge Distillation, Adapter Fine-tuning. Our model obtains competitive results in the end.

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On the Stability of System Rankings at WMT
Rebecca Knowles

The current approach to collecting human judgments of machine translation quality for the news translation task at WMT – segment rating with document context – is the most recent in a sequence of changes to WMT human annotation protocol. As these annotation protocols have changed over time, they have drifted away from some of the initial statistical assumptions underpinning them, with consequences that call the validity of WMT news task system rankings into question. In simulations based on real data, we show that the rankings can be influenced by the presence of outliers (high- or low-quality systems), resulting in different system rankings and clusterings. We also examine questions of annotation task composition and how ease or difficulty of translating different documents may influence system rankings. We provide discussion of ways to analyze these issues when considering future changes to annotation protocols.

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To Ship or Not to Ship: An Extensive Evaluation of Automatic Metrics for Machine Translation
Tom Kocmi | Christian Federmann | Roman Grundkiewicz | Marcin Junczys-Dowmunt | Hitokazu Matsushita | Arul Menezes

Automatic metrics are commonly used as the exclusive tool for declaring the superiority of one machine translation system’s quality over another. The community choice of automatic metric guides research directions and industrial developments by deciding which models are deemed better. Evaluating metrics correlations with sets of human judgements has been limited by the size of these sets. In this paper, we corroborate how reliable metrics are in contrast to human judgements on – to the best of our knowledge – the largest collection of judgements reported in the literature. Arguably, pairwise rankings of two systems are the most common evaluation tasks in research or deployment scenarios. Taking human judgement as a gold standard, we investigate which metrics have the highest accuracy in predicting translation quality rankings for such system pairs. Furthermore, we evaluate the performance of various metrics across different language pairs and domains. Lastly, we show that the sole use of BLEU impeded the development of improved models leading to bad deployment decisions. We release the collection of 2.3M sentence-level human judgements for 4380 systems for further analysis and replication of our work.

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Just Ask! Evaluating Machine Translation by Asking and Answering Questions
Mateusz Krubiński | Erfan Ghadery | Marie-Francine Moens | Pavel Pecina

In this paper, we show that automatically-generated questions and answers can be used to evaluate the quality of Machine Translation (MT) systems. Building on recent work on the evaluation of abstractive text summarization, we propose a new metric for system-level MT evaluation, compare it with other state-of-the-art solutions, and show its robustness by conducting experiments for various MT directions.

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A Fine-Grained Analysis of BERTScore
Michael Hanna | Ondřej Bojar

BERTScore, a recently proposed automatic metric for machine translation quality, uses BERT, a large pre-trained language model to evaluate candidate translations with respect to a gold translation. Taking advantage of BERT’s semantic and syntactic abilities, BERTScore seeks to avoid the flaws of earlier approaches like BLEU, instead scoring candidate translations based on their semantic similarity to the gold sentence. However, BERT is not infallible; while its performance on NLP tasks set a new state of the art in general, studies of specific syntactic and semantic phenomena have shown where BERT’s performance deviates from that of humans more generally. This naturally raises the questions we address in this paper: what are the strengths and weaknesses of BERTScore? Do they relate to known weaknesses on the part of BERT? We find that while BERTScore can detect when a candidate differs from a reference in important content words, it is less sensitive to smaller errors, especially if the candidate is lexically or stylistically similar to the reference.

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Evaluating Multiway Multilingual NMT in the Turkic Languages
Jamshidbek Mirzakhalov | Anoop Babu | Aigiz Kunafin | Ahsan Wahab | Bekhzodbek Moydinboyev | Sardana Ivanova | Mokhiyakhon Uzokova | Shaxnoza Pulatova | Duygu Ataman | Julia Kreutzer | Francis Tyers | Orhan Firat | John Licato | Sriram Chellappan

Despite the increasing number of large and comprehensive machine translation (MT) systems, evaluation of these methods in various languages has been restrained by the lack of high-quality parallel corpora as well as engagement with the people that speak these languages. In this study, we present an evaluation of state-of-the-art approaches to training and evaluating MT systems in 22 languages from the Turkic language family, most of which being extremely under-explored. First, we adopt the TIL Corpus with a few key improvements to the training and the evaluation sets. Then, we train 26 bilingual baselines as well as a multi-way neural MT (MNMT) model using the corpus and perform an extensive analysis using automatic metrics as well as human evaluations. We find that the MNMT model outperforms almost all bilingual baselines in the out-of-domain test sets and finetuning the model on a downstream task of a single pair also results in a huge performance boost in both low- and high-resource scenarios. Our attentive analysis of evaluation criteria for MT models in Turkic languages also points to the necessity for further research in this direction. We release the corpus splits, test sets as well as models to the public.

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Extending Challenge Sets to Uncover Gender Bias in Machine Translation: Impact of Stereotypical Verbs and Adjectives
Jonas-Dario Troles | Ute Schmid

Human gender bias is reflected in language and text production. Because state-of-the-art machine translation (MT) systems are trained on large corpora of text, mostly generated by humans, gender bias can also be found in MT. For instance when occupations are translated from a language like English, which mostly uses gender neutral words, to a language like German, which mostly uses a feminine and a masculine version for an occupation, a decision must be made by the MT System. Recent research showed that MT systems are biased towards stereotypical translation of occupations. In 2019 the first, and so far only, challenge set, explicitly designed to measure the extent of gender bias in MT systems has been published. In this set measurement of gender bias is solely based on the translation of occupations. With our paper we present an extension of this challenge set, called WiBeMT, which adds gender-biased adjectives and sentences with gender-biased verbs. The resulting challenge set consists of over 70, 000 sentences and has been translated with three commercial MT systems: DeepL Translator, Microsoft Translator, and Google Translate. Results show a gender bias for all three MT systems. This gender bias is to a great extent significantly influenced by adjectives and to a lesser extent by verbs.

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Continual Learning in Multilingual NMT via Language-Specific Embeddings
Alexandre Berard

This paper proposes a technique for adding a new source or target language to an existing multilingual NMT model without re-training it on the initial set of languages. It consists in replacing the shared vocabulary with a small language-specific vocabulary and fine-tuning the new embeddings on the new language’s parallel data. Some additional language-specific components may be trained to improve performance (e.g., Transformer layers or adapter modules). Because the parameters of the original model are not modified, its performance on the initial languages does not degrade. We show on two sets of experiments (small-scale on TED Talks, and large-scale on ParaCrawl) that this approach performs as well or better as the more costly alternatives; and that it has excellent zero-shot performance: training on English-centric data is enough to translate between the new language and any of the initial languages.

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DELA Corpus - A Document-Level Corpus Annotated with Context-Related Issues
Sheila Castilho | João Lucas Cavalheiro Camargo | Miguel Menezes | Andy Way

Recently, the Machine Translation (MT) community has become more interested in document-level evaluation especially in light of reactions to claims of “human parity”, since examining the quality at the level of the document rather than at the sentence level allows for the assessment of suprasentential context, providing a more reliable evaluation. This paper presents a document-level corpus annotated in English with context-aware issues that arise when translating from English into Brazilian Portuguese, namely ellipsis, gender, lexical ambiguity, number, reference, and terminology, with six different domains. The corpus can be used as a challenge test set for evaluation and as a training/testing corpus for MT as well as for deep linguistic analysis of context issues. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first corpus of its kind.

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Multilingual Domain Adaptation for NMT: Decoupling Language and Domain Information with Adapters
Asa Cooper Stickland | Alexandre Berard | Vassilina Nikoulina

Adapter layers are lightweight, learnable units inserted between transformer layers. Recent work explores using such layers for neural machine translation (NMT), to adapt pre-trained models to new domains or language pairs, training only a small set of parameters for each new setting (language pair or domain). In this work we study the compositionality of language and domain adapters in the context of Machine Translation. We aim to study, 1) parameter-efficient adaptation to multiple domains and languages simultaneously (full-resource scenario) and 2) cross-lingual transfer in domains where parallel data is unavailable for certain language pairs (partial-resource scenario). We find that in the partial resource scenario a naive combination of domain-specific and language-specific adapters often results in ‘catastrophic forgetting’ of the missing languages. We study other ways to combine the adapters to alleviate this issue and maximize cross-lingual transfer. With our best adapter combinations, we obtain improvements of 3-4 BLEU on average for source languages that do not have in-domain data. For target languages without in-domain data, we achieve a similar improvement by combining adapters with back-translation. Supplementary material is available at https://tinyurl.com/r66stbxj.

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Translation Transformers Rediscover Inherent Data Domains
Maksym Del | Elizaveta Korotkova | Mark Fishel

Many works proposed methods to improve the performance of Neural Machine Translation (NMT) models in a domain/multi-domain adaptation scenario. However, an understanding of how NMT baselines represent text domain information internally is still lacking. Here we analyze the sentence representations learned by NMT Transformers and show that these explicitly include the information on text domains, even after only seeing the input sentences without domains labels. Furthermore, we show that this internal information is enough to cluster sentences by their underlying domains without supervision. We show that NMT models produce clusters better aligned to the actual domains compared to pre-trained language models (LMs). Notably, when computed on document-level, NMT cluster-to-domain correspondence nears 100%. We use these findings together with an approach to NMT domain adaptation using automatically extracted domains. Whereas previous work relied on external LMs for text clustering, we propose re-using the NMT model as a source of unsupervised clusters. We perform an extensive experimental study comparing two approaches across two data scenarios, three language pairs, and both sentence-level and document-level clustering, showing equal or significantly superior performance compared to LMs.

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Improving Machine Translation of Rare and Unseen Word Senses
Viktor Hangya | Qianchu Liu | Dario Stojanovski | Alexander Fraser | Anna Korhonen

The performance of NMT systems has improved drastically in the past few years but the translation of multi-sense words still poses a challenge. Since word senses are not represented uniformly in the parallel corpora used for training, there is an excessive use of the most frequent sense in MT output. In this work, we propose CmBT (Contextually-mined Back-Translation), an approach for improving multi-sense word translation leveraging pre-trained cross-lingual contextual word representations (CCWRs). Because of their contextual sensitivity and their large pre-training data, CCWRs can easily capture word senses that are missing or very rare in parallel corpora used to train MT. Specifically, CmBT applies bilingual lexicon induction on CCWRs to mine sense-specific target sentences from a monolingual dataset, and then back-translates these sentences to generate a pseudo parallel corpus as additional training data for an MT system. We test the translation quality of ambiguous words on the MuCoW test suite, which was built to test the word sense disambiguation effectiveness of MT systems. We show that our system improves on the translation of difficult unseen and low frequency word senses.

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Pushing the Right Buttons: Adversarial Evaluation of Quality Estimation
Diptesh Kanojia | Marina Fomicheva | Tharindu Ranasinghe | Frédéric Blain | Constantin Orăsan | Lucia Specia

Current Machine Translation (MT) systems achieve very good results on a growing variety of language pairs and datasets. However, they are known to produce fluent translation outputs that can contain important meaning errors, thus undermining their reliability in practice. Quality Estimation (QE) is the task of automatically assessing the performance of MT systems at test time. Thus, in order to be useful, QE systems should be able to detect such errors. However, this ability is yet to be tested in the current evaluation practices, where QE systems are assessed only in terms of their correlation with human judgements. In this work, we bridge this gap by proposing a general methodology for adversarial testing of QE for MT. First, we show that despite a high correlation with human judgements achieved by the recent SOTA, certain types of meaning errors are still problematic for QE to detect. Second, we show that on average, the ability of a given model to discriminate between meaning-preserving and meaning-altering perturbations is predictive of its overall performance, thus potentially allowing for comparing QE systems without relying on manual quality annotation.

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Findings of the WMT 2021 Shared Task on Efficient Translation
Kenneth Heafield | Qianqian Zhu | Roman Grundkiewicz

The machine translation efficiency task challenges participants to make their systems faster and smaller with minimal impact on translation quality. How much quality to sacrifice for efficiency depends upon the application, so participants were encouraged to make multiple submissions covering the space of trade-offs. In total, there were 53 submissions by 4 teams. There were GPU, single-core CPU, and multi-core CPU hardware tracks as well as batched throughput or single-sentence latency conditions. Submissions showed hundreds of millions of words can be translated for a dollar, average latency is 5–17 ms, and models fit in 7.5–150 MB.

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Findings of the WMT Shared Task on Machine Translation Using Terminologies
Md Mahfuz Ibn Alam | Ivana Kvapilíková | Antonios Anastasopoulos | Laurent Besacier | Georgiana Dinu | Marcello Federico | Matthias Gallé | Kweonwoo Jung | Philipp Koehn | Vassilina Nikoulina

Language domains that require very careful use of terminology are abundant and reflect a significant part of the translation industry. In this work we introduce a benchmark for evaluating the quality and consistency of terminology translation, focusing on the medical (and COVID-19 specifically) domain for five language pairs: English to French, Chinese, Russian, and Korean, as well as Czech to German. We report the descriptions and results of the participating systems, commenting on the need for further research efforts towards both more adequate handling of terminologies as well as towards a proper formulation and evaluation of the task.

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Findings of the WMT 2021 Biomedical Translation Shared Task: Summaries of Animal Experiments as New Test Set
Lana Yeganova | Dina Wiemann | Mariana Neves | Federica Vezzani | Amy Siu | Inigo Jauregi Unanue | Maite Oronoz | Nancy Mah | Aurélie Névéol | David Martinez | Rachel Bawden | Giorgio Maria Di Nunzio | Roland Roller | Philippe Thomas | Cristian Grozea | Olatz Perez-de-Viñaspre | Maika Vicente Navarro | Antonio Jimeno Yepes

In the sixth edition of the WMT Biomedical Task, we addressed a total of eight language pairs, namely English/German, English/French, English/Spanish, English/Portuguese, English/Chinese, English/Russian, English/Italian, and English/Basque. Further, our tests were composed of three types of textual test sets. New to this year, we released a test set of summaries of animal experiments, in addition to the test sets of scientific abstracts and terminologies. We received a total of 107 submissions from 15 teams from 6 countries.

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Findings of the WMT 2021 Shared Task on Quality Estimation
Lucia Specia | Frédéric Blain | Marina Fomicheva | Chrysoula Zerva | Zhenhao Li | Vishrav Chaudhary | André F. T. Martins

We report the results of the WMT 2021 shared task on Quality Estimation, where the challenge is to predict the quality of the output of neural machine translation systems at the word and sentence levels. This edition focused on two main novel additions: (i) prediction for unseen languages, i.e. zero-shot settings, and (ii) prediction of sentences with catastrophic errors. In addition, new data was released for a number of languages, especially post-edited data. Participating teams from 19 institutions submitted altogether 1263 systems to different task variants and language pairs.

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Findings of the WMT 2021 Shared Tasks in Unsupervised MT and Very Low Resource Supervised MT
Jindřich Libovický | Alexander Fraser

We present the findings of the WMT2021 Shared Tasks in Unsupervised MT and Very Low Resource Supervised MT. Within the task, the community studied very low resource translation between German and Upper Sorbian, unsupervised translation between German and Lower Sorbian and low resource translation between Russian and Chuvash, all minority languages with active language communities working on preserving the languages, who are partners in the evaluation. Thanks to this, we were able to obtain most digital data available for these languages and offer them to the task participants. In total, six teams participated in the shared task. The paper discusses the background, presents the tasks and results, and discusses best practices for the future.

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Results of the WMT21 Metrics Shared Task: Evaluating Metrics with Expert-based Human Evaluations on TED and News Domain
Markus Freitag | Ricardo Rei | Nitika Mathur | Chi-kiu Lo | Craig Stewart | George Foster | Alon Lavie | Ondřej Bojar

This paper presents the results of the WMT21 Metrics Shared Task. Participants were asked to score the outputs of the translation systems competing in the WMT21 News Translation Task with automatic metrics on two different domains: news and TED talks. All metrics were evaluated on how well they correlate at the system- and segment-level with human ratings. Contrary to previous years’ editions, this year we acquired our own human ratings based on expert-based human evaluation via Multidimensional Quality Metrics (MQM). This setup had several advantages: (i) expert-based evaluation has been shown to be more reliable, (ii) we were able to evaluate all metrics on two different domains using translations of the same MT systems, (iii) we added 5 additional translations coming from the same system during system development. In addition, we designed three challenge sets that evaluate the robustness of all automatic metrics. We present an extensive analysis on how well metrics perform on three language pairs: English to German, English to Russian and Chinese to English. We further show the impact of different reference translations on reference-based metrics and compare our expert-based MQM annotation with the DA scores acquired by WMT.

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Efficient Machine Translation with Model Pruning and Quantization
Maximiliana Behnke | Nikolay Bogoychev | Alham Fikri Aji | Kenneth Heafield | Graeme Nail | Qianqian Zhu | Svetlana Tchistiakova | Jelmer van der Linde | Pinzhen Chen | Sidharth Kashyap | Roman Grundkiewicz

We participated in all tracks of the WMT 2021 efficient machine translation task: single-core CPU, multi-core CPU, and GPU hardware with throughput and latency conditions. Our submissions combine several efficiency strategies: knowledge distillation, a simpler simple recurrent unit (SSRU) decoder with one or two layers, lexical shortlists, smaller numerical formats, and pruning. For the CPU track, we used quantized 8-bit models. For the GPU track, we experimented with FP16 and 8-bit integers in tensorcores. Some of our submissions optimize for size via 4-bit log quantization and omitting a lexical shortlist. We have extended pruning to more parts of the network, emphasizing component- and block-level pruning that actually improves speed unlike coefficient-wise pruning.

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HW-TSC’s Participation in the WMT 2021 Efficiency Shared Task
Hengchao Shang | Ting Hu | Daimeng Wei | Zongyao Li | Jianfei Feng | ZhengZhe Yu | Jiaxin Guo | Shaojun Li | Lizhi Lei | ShiMin Tao | Hao Yang | Jun Yao | Ying Qin

This paper presents the submission of Huawei Translation Services Center (HW-TSC) to WMT 2021 Efficiency Shared Task. We explore the sentence-level teacher-student distillation technique and train several small-size models that find a balance between efficiency and quality. Our models feature deep encoder, shallow decoder and light-weight RNN with SSRU layer. We use Huawei Noah’s Bolt, an efficient and light-weight library for on-device inference. Leveraging INT8 quantization, self-defined General Matrix Multiplication (GEMM) operator, shortlist, greedy search and caching, we submit four small-size and efficient translation models with high translation quality for the one CPU core latency track.

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The NiuTrans System for the WMT 2021 Efficiency Task
Chenglong Wang | Chi Hu | Yongyu Mu | Zhongxiang Yan | Siming Wu | Yimin Hu | Hang Cao | Bei Li | Ye Lin | Tong Xiao | Jingbo Zhu

This paper describes the NiuTrans system for the WMT21 translation efficiency task. Following last year’s work, we explore various techniques to improve the efficiency while maintaining translation quality. We investigate the combinations of lightweight Transformer architectures and knowledge distillation strategies. Also, we improve the translation efficiency with graph optimization, low precision, dynamic batching, and parallel pre/post-processing. Putting these together, our system can translate 247,000 words per second on an NVIDIA A100, being 3× faster than our last year’s system. Our system is the fastest and has the lowest memory consumption on the GPU-throughput track. The code, model, and pipeline will be available at NiuTrans.NMT.

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TenTrans High-Performance Inference Toolkit for WMT2021 Efficiency Task
Kaixin Wu | Bojie Hu | Qi Ju

The paper describes the TenTrans’s submissions to the WMT 2021 Efficiency Shared Task. We explore training a variety of smaller compact transformer models using the teacher-student setup. Our model is trained by our self-developed open-source multilingual training platform TenTrans-Py. We also release an open-source high-performance inference toolkit for transformer models and the code is written in C++ completely. All additional optimizations are built on top of the inference engine including attention caching, kernel fusion, early-stop, and several other optimizations. In our submissions, the fastest system can translate more than 22,000 tokens per second with a single Tesla P4 while maintaining 38.36 BLEU on En-De newstest2019. Our trained models and more details are available in TenTrans-Decoding competition examples.

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Lingua Custodia’s Participation at the WMT 2021 Machine Translation Using Terminologies Shared Task
Melissa Ailem | Jingshu Liu | Raheel Qader

This paper describes Lingua Custodia’s submission to the WMT21 shared task on machine translation using terminologies. We consider three directions, namely English to French, Russian, and Chinese. We rely on a Transformer-based architecture as a building block, and we explore a method which introduces two main changes to the standard procedure to handle terminologies. The first one consists in augmenting the training data in such a way as to encourage the model to learn a copy behavior when it encounters terminology constraint terms. The second change is constraint token masking, whose purpose is to ease copy behavior learning and to improve model generalization. Empirical results show that our method satisfies most terminology constraints while maintaining high translation quality.

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Kakao Enterprise’s WMT21 Machine Translation Using Terminologies Task Submission
Yunju Bak | Jimin Sun | Jay Kim | Sungwon Lyu | Changmin Lee

This paper describes Kakao Enterprise’s submission to the WMT21 shared Machine Translation using Terminologies task. We integrate terminology constraints by pre-training with target lemma annotations and fine-tuning with exact target annotations utilizing the given terminology dataset. This approach yields a model that achieves outstanding results in terms of both translation quality and term consistency, ranking first based on COMET in the En→Fr language direction. Furthermore, we explore various methods such as back-translation, explicitly training terminologies as additional parallel data, and in-domain data selection.

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The SPECTRANS System Description for the WMT21 Terminology Task
Nicolas Ballier | Dahn Cho | Bilal Faye | Zong-You Ke | Hanna Martikainen | Mojca Pecman | Guillaume Wisniewski | Jean-Baptiste Yunès | Lichao Zhu | Maria Zimina-Poirot

This paper discusses the WMT 2021 terminology shared task from a “meta” perspective. We present the results of our experiments using the terminology dataset and the OpenNMT (Klein et al., 2017) and JoeyNMT (Kreutzer et al., 2019) toolkits for the language direction English to French. Our experiment 1 compares the predictions of the two toolkits. Experiment 2 uses OpenNMT to fine-tune the model. We report our results for the task with the evaluation script but mostly discuss the linguistic properties of the terminology dataset provided for the task. We provide evidence of the importance of text genres across scores, having replicated the evaluation scripts.

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Dynamic Terminology Integration for COVID-19 and Other Emerging Domains
Toms Bergmanis | Mārcis Pinnis

The majority of language domains require prudent use of terminology to ensure clarity and adequacy of information conveyed. While the correct use of terminology for some languages and domains can be achieved by adapting general-purpose MT systems on large volumes of in-domain parallel data, such quantities of domain-specific data are seldom available for less-resourced languages and niche domains. Furthermore, as exemplified by COVID-19 recently, no domain-specific parallel data is readily available for emerging domains. However, the gravity of this recent calamity created a high demand for reliable translation of critical information regarding pandemic and infection prevention. This work is part of WMT2021 Shared Task: Machine Translation using Terminologies, where we describe Tilde MT systems that are capable of dynamic terminology integration at the time of translation. Our systems achieve up to 94% COVID-19 term use accuracy on the test set of the EN-FR language pair without having access to any form of in-domain information during system training.

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CUNI Systems for WMT21: Terminology Translation Shared Task
Josef Jon | Michal Novák | João Paulo Aires | Dusan Varis | Ondřej Bojar

This paper describes Charles University sub-mission for Terminology translation Shared Task at WMT21. The objective of this task is to design a system which translates certain terms based on a provided terminology database, while preserving high overall translation quality. We competed in English-French language pair. Our approach is based on providing the desired translations alongside the input sentence and training the model to use these provided terms. We lemmatize the terms both during the training and inference, to allow the model to learn how to produce correct surface forms of the words, when they differ from the forms provided in the terminology database. Our submission ranked second in Exact Match metric which evaluates the ability of the model to produce desired terms in the translation.

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PROMT Systems for WMT21 Terminology Translation Task
Alexander Molchanov | Vladislav Kovalenko | Fedor Bykov

This paper describes the PROMT submissions for the WMT21 Terminology Translation Task. We participate in two directions: English to French and English to Russian. Our final submissions are MarianNMT-based neural systems. We present two technologies for terminology translation: a modification of the Dinu et al. (2019) soft-constrained approach and our own approach called PROMT Smart Neural Dictionary (SmartND). We achieve good results in both directions.

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SYSTRAN @ WMT 2021: Terminology Task
Minh Quang Pham | Josep Crego | Antoine Senellart | Dan Berrebbi | Jean Senellart

This paper describes SYSTRAN submissions to the WMT 2021 terminology shared task. We participate in the English-to-French translation direction with a standard Transformer neural machine translation network that we enhance with the ability to dynamically include terminology constraints, a very common industrial practice. Two state-of-the-art terminology insertion methods are evaluated based (i) on the use of placeholders complemented with morphosyntactic annotation and (ii) on the use of target constraints injected in the source stream. Results show the suitability of the presented approaches in the evaluated scenario where terminology is used in a system trained on generic data only.

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TermMind: Alibaba’s WMT21 Machine Translation Using Terminologies Task Submission
Ke Wang | Shuqin Gu | Boxing Chen | Yu Zhao | Weihua Luo | Yuqi Zhang

This paper describes our work in the WMT 2021 Machine Translation using Terminologies Shared Task. We participate in the shared translation terminologies task in English to Chinese language pair. To satisfy terminology constraints on translation, we use a terminology data augmentation strategy based on Transformer model. We used tags to mark and add the term translations into the matched sentences. We created synthetic terms using phrase tables extracted from bilingual corpus to increase the proportion of term translations in training data. Detailed pre-processing and filtering on data, in-domain finetuning and ensemble method are used in our system. Our submission obtains competitive results in the terminology-targeted evaluation.

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FJWU Participation for the WMT21 Biomedical Translation Task
Sumbal Naz | Sadaf Abdul Rauf | Sami Ul Haq

In this paper we present the FJWU’s system submitted to the biomedical shared task at WMT21. We prepared state-of-the-art multilingual neural machine translation systems for three languages (i.e. German, Spanish and French) with English as target language. Our NMT systems based on Transformer architecture, were trained on combination of in-domain and out-domain parallel corpora developed using Information Retrieval (IR) and domain adaptation techniques.

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High Frequent In-domain Words Segmentation and Forward Translation for the WMT21 Biomedical Task
Bardia Rafieian | Marta R. Costa-jussa

This paper reports the optimization of using the out-of-domain data in the Biomedical translation task. We firstly optimized our parallel training dataset using the BabelNet in-domain terminology words. Afterward, to increase the training set, we studied the effects of the out-of-domain data on biomedical translation tasks, and we created a mixture of in-domain and out-of-domain training sets and added more in-domain data using forward translation in the English-Spanish task. Finally, with a simple bpe optimization method, we increased the number of in-domain sub-words in our mixed training set and trained the Transformer model on the generated data. Results show improvements using our proposed method.

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Huawei AARC’s Submissions to the WMT21 Biomedical Translation Task: Domain Adaption from a Practical Perspective
Weixuan Wang | Wei Peng | Xupeng Meng | Qun Liu

This paper describes Huawei Artificial Intelligence Application Research Center’s neural machine translation systems and submissions to the WMT21 biomedical translation shared task. Four of the submissions achieve state-of-the-art BLEU scores based on the official-released automatic evaluation results (EN->FR, EN<->IT and ZH->EN). We perform experiments to unveil the practical insights of the involved domain adaptation techniques, including finetuning order, terminology dictionaries, and ensemble decoding. Issues associated with overfitting and under-translation are also discussed.

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Tencent AI Lab Machine Translation Systems for the WMT21 Biomedical Translation Task
Xing Wang | Zhaopeng Tu | Shuming Shi

This paper describes the Tencent AI Lab submission of the WMT2021 shared task on biomedical translation in eight language directions: English-German, English-French, English-Spanish and English-Russian. We utilized different Transformer architectures, pretraining and back-translation strategies to improve translation quality. Concretely, we explore mBART (Liu et al., 2020) to demonstrate the effectiveness of the pretraining strategy. Our submissions (Tencent AI Lab Machine Translation, TMT) in German/French/Spanish⇒English are ranked 1st respectively according to the official evaluation results in terms of BLEU scores.

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HW-TSC’s Submissions to the WMT21 Biomedical Translation Task
Hao Yang | Zhanglin Wu | Zhengzhe Yu | Xiaoyu Chen | Daimeng Wei | Zongyao Li | Hengchao Shang | Minghan Wang | Jiaxin Guo | Lizhi Lei | Chuanfei Xu | Min Zhang | Ying Qin

This paper describes the submission of Huawei Translation Service Center (HW-TSC) to WMT21 biomedical translation task in two language pairs: Chinese↔English and German↔English (Our registered team name is HuaweiTSC). Technical details are introduced in this paper, including model framework, data pre-processing method and model enhancement strategies. In addition, using the wmt20 OK-aligned biomedical test set, we compare and analyze system performances under different strategies. On WMT21 biomedical translation task, Our systems in English→Chinese and English→German directions get the highest BLEU scores among all submissions according to the official evaluation results.

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RTM Super Learner Results at Quality Estimation Task
Ergun Biçici

We obtain new results using referential translation machines (RTMs) with predictions mixed to obtain a better mixture of experts prediction. Our super learner results improve the results and provide a robust combination model.

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HW-TSC’s Participation at WMT 2021 Quality Estimation Shared Task
Yimeng Chen | Chang Su | Yingtao Zhang | Yuxia Wang | Xiang Geng | Hao Yang | Shimin Tao | Guo Jiaxin | Wang Minghan | Min Zhang | Yujia Liu | Shujian Huang

This paper presents our work in WMT 2021 Quality Estimation (QE) Shared Task. We participated in all of the three sub-tasks, including Sentence-Level Direct Assessment (DA) task, Word and Sentence-Level Post-editing Effort task and Critical Error Detection task, in all language pairs. Our systems employ the framework of Predictor-Estimator, concretely with a pre-trained XLM-Roberta as Predictor and task-specific classifier or regressor as Estimator. For all tasks, we improve our systems by incorporating post-edit sentence or additional high-quality translation sentence in the way of multitask learning or encoding it with predictors directly. Moreover, in zero-shot setting, our data augmentation strategy based on Monte-Carlo Dropout brings up significant improvement on DA sub-task. Notably, our submissions achieve remarkable results over all tasks.

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Ensemble Fine-tuned mBERT for Translation Quality Estimation
Shaika Chowdhury | Naouel Baili | Brian Vannah

Quality Estimation (QE) is an important component of the machine translation workflow as it assesses the quality of the translated output without consulting reference translations. In this paper, we discuss our submission to the WMT 2021 QE Shared Task. We participate in Task 2 sentence-level sub-task that challenge participants to predict the HTER score for sentence-level post-editing effort. Our proposed system is an ensemble of multilingual BERT (mBERT)-based regression models, which are generated by fine-tuning on different input settings. It demonstrates comparable performance with respect to the Pearson’s correlation, and beat the baseline system in MAE/ RMSE for several language pairs. In addition, we adapt our system for the zero-shot setting by exploiting target language-relevant language pairs and pseudo-reference translations.

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The JHU-Microsoft Submission for WMT21 Quality Estimation Shared Task
Shuoyang Ding | Marcin Junczys-Dowmunt | Matt Post | Christian Federmann | Philipp Koehn

This paper presents the JHU-Microsoft joint submission for WMT 2021 quality estimation shared task. We only participate in Task 2 (post-editing effort estimation) of the shared task, focusing on the target-side word-level quality estimation. The techniques we experimented with include Levenshtein Transformer training and data augmentation with a combination of forward, backward, round-trip translation, and pseudo post-editing of the MT output. We demonstrate the competitiveness of our system compared to the widely adopted OpenKiwi-XLM baseline. Our system is also the top-ranking system on the MT MCC metric for the English-German language pair.

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TUDa at WMT21: Sentence-Level Direct Assessment with Adapters
Gregor Geigle | Jonas Stadtmüller | Wei Zhao | Jonas Pfeiffer | Steffen Eger

This paper presents our submissions to the WMT2021 Shared Task on Quality Estimation, Task 1 Sentence-Level Direct Assessment. While top-performing approaches utilize massively multilingual Transformer-based language models which have been pre-trained on all target languages of the task, the resulting insights are limited, as it is unclear how well the approach performs on languages unseen during pre-training; more problematically, these approaches do not provide any solutions for extending the model to new languages or unseen scripts—arguably one of the objectives of this shared task. In this work, we thus focus on utilizing massively multilingual language models which only partly cover the target languages during their pre-training phase. We extend the model to new languages and unseen scripts using recent adapter-based methods and achieve on par performance or even surpass models pre-trained on the respective languages.

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Quality Estimation Using Dual Encoders with Transfer Learning
Dam Heo | WonKee Lee | Baikjin Jung | Jong-Hyeok Lee

This paper describes POSTECH’s quality estimation systems submitted to Task 2 of the WMT 2021 quality estimation shared task: Word and Sentence-Level Post-editing Effort. We notice that it is possible to improve the stability of the latest quality estimation models that have only one encoder based on the self-attention mechanism to simultaneously process both of the two input data, a source sequence and its machine translation, in that such models have neglected to take advantage of pre-trained monolingual representations, which are generally accepted as reliable representations for various natural language processing tasks. Therefore, our model uses two pre-trained monolingual encoders and then exchanges the information of two encoded representations through two additional cross attention networks. According to the official leaderboard, our systems outperform the baseline systems in terms of the Matthews correlation coefficient for machine translations’ word-level quality estimation and in terms of the Pearson’s correlation coefficient for sentence-level quality estimation by 0.4126 and 0.5497 respectively.

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ICL’s Submission to the WMT21 Critical Error Detection Shared Task
Genze Jiang | Zhenhao Li | Lucia Specia

This paper presents Imperial College London’s submissions to the WMT21 Quality Estimation (QE) Shared Task 3: Critical Error Detection. Our approach builds on cross-lingual pre-trained representations in a sequence classification model. We further improve the base classifier by (i) adding a weighted sampler to deal with unbalanced data and (ii) introducing feature engineering, where features related to toxicity, named-entities and sentiment, which are potentially indicative of critical errors, are extracted using existing tools and integrated to the model in different ways. We train models with one type of feature at a time and ensemble those models that improve over the base classifier on the development (dev) set. Our official submissions achieve very competitive results, ranking second for three out of four language pairs.

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Papago’s Submission for the WMT21 Quality Estimation Shared Task
Seunghyun Lim | Hantae Kim | Hyunjoong Kim

This paper describes Papago submission to the WMT 2021 Quality Estimation Task 1: Sentence-level Direct Assessment. Our multilingual Quality Estimation system explores the combination of Pretrained Language Models and Multi-task Learning architectures. We propose an iterative training pipeline based on pretraining with large amounts of in-domain synthetic data and finetuning with gold (labeled) data. We then compress our system via knowledge distillation in order to reduce parameters yet maintain strong performance. Our submitted multilingual systems perform competitively in multilingual and all 11 individual language pair settings including zero-shot.

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NICT Kyoto Submission for the WMT’21 Quality Estimation Task: Multimetric Multilingual Pretraining for Critical Error Detection
Raphael Rubino | Atsushi Fujita | Benjamin Marie

This paper presents the NICT Kyoto submission for the WMT’21 Quality Estimation (QE) Critical Error Detection shared task (Task 3). Our approach relies mainly on QE model pretraining for which we used 11 language pairs, three sentence-level and three word-level translation quality metrics. Starting from an XLM-R checkpoint, we perform continued training by modifying the learning objective, switching from masked language modeling to QE oriented signals, before finetuning and ensembling the models. Results obtained on the test set in terms of correlation coefficient and F-score show that automatic metrics and synthetic data perform well for pretraining, with our submissions ranked first for two out of four language pairs. A deeper look at the impact of each metric on the downstream task indicates higher performance for token oriented metrics, while an ablation study emphasizes the usefulness of conducting both self-supervised and QE pretraining.

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QEMind: Alibaba’s Submission to the WMT21 Quality Estimation Shared Task
Jiayi Wang | Ke Wang | Boxing Chen | Yu Zhao | Weihua Luo | Yuqi Zhang

Quality Estimation, as a crucial step of quality control for machine translation, has been explored for years. The goal is to to investigate automatic methods for estimating the quality of machine translation results without reference translations. In this year’s WMT QE shared task, we utilize the large-scale XLM-Roberta pre-trained model and additionally propose several useful features to evaluate the uncertainty of the translations to build our QE system, named QEMind . The system has been applied to the sentence-level scoring task of Direct Assessment and the binary score prediction task of Critical Error Detection. In this paper, we present our submissions to the WMT 2021 QE shared task and an extensive set of experimental results have shown us that our multilingual systems outperform the best system in the Direct Assessment QE task of WMT 2020.

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Direct Exploitation of Attention Weights for Translation Quality Estimation
Lisa Yankovskaya | Mark Fishel

The paper presents our submission to the WMT2021 Shared Task on Quality Estimation (QE). We participate in sentence-level predictions of human judgments and post-editing effort. We propose a glass-box approach based on attention weights extracted from machine translation systems. In contrast to the previous works, we directly explore attention weight matrices without replacing them with general metrics (like entropy). We show that some of our models can be trained with a small amount of a high-cost labelled data. In the absence of training data our approach still demonstrates a moderate linear correlation, when trained with synthetic data.

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IST-Unbabel 2021 Submission for the Quality Estimation Shared Task
Chrysoula Zerva | Daan van Stigt | Ricardo Rei | Ana C Farinha | Pedro Ramos | José G. C. de Souza | Taisiya Glushkova | Miguel Vera | Fabio Kepler | André F. T. Martins

We present the joint contribution of IST and Unbabel to the WMT 2021 Shared Task on Quality Estimation. Our team participated on two tasks: Direct Assessment and Post-Editing Effort, encompassing a total of 35 submissions. For all submissions, our efforts focused on training multilingual models on top of OpenKiwi predictor-estimator architecture, using pre-trained multilingual encoders combined with adapters. We further experiment with and uncertainty-related objectives and features as well as training on out-of-domain direct assessment data.

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The IICT-Yverdon System for the WMT 2021 Unsupervised MT and Very Low Resource Supervised MT Task
Àlex R. Atrio | Gabriel Luthier | Axel Fahy | Giorgos Vernikos | Andrei Popescu-Belis | Ljiljana Dolamic

In this paper, we present the systems submitted by our team from the Institute of ICT (HEIG-VD / HES-SO) to the Unsupervised MT and Very Low Resource Supervised MT task. We first study the improvements brought to a baseline system by techniques such as back-translation and initialization from a parent model. We find that both techniques are beneficial and suffice to reach performance that compares with more sophisticated systems from the 2020 task. We then present the application of this system to the 2021 task for low-resource supervised Upper Sorbian (HSB) to German translation, in both directions. Finally, we present a contrastive system for HSB-DE in both directions, and for unsupervised German to Lower Sorbian (DSB) translation, which uses multi-task training with various training schedules to improve over the baseline.

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Unsupervised Translation of German–Lower Sorbian: Exploring Training and Novel Transfer Methods on a Low-Resource Language
Lukas Edman | Ahmet Üstün | Antonio Toral | Gertjan van Noord

This paper describes the methods behind the systems submitted by the University of Groningen for the WMT 2021 Unsupervised Machine Translation task for German–Lower Sorbian (DE–DSB): a high-resource language to a low-resource one. Our system uses a transformer encoder-decoder architecture in which we make three changes to the standard training procedure. First, our training focuses on two languages at a time, contrasting with a wealth of research on multilingual systems. Second, we introduce a novel method for initializing the vocabulary of an unseen language, achieving improvements of 3.2 BLEU for DE->DSB and 4.0 BLEU for DSB->DE.Lastly, we experiment with the order in which offline and online back-translation are used to train an unsupervised system, finding that using online back-translation first works better for DE->DSB by 2.76 BLEU. Our submissions ranked first (tied with another team) for DSB->DE and third for DE->DSB.

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The LMU Munich Systems for the WMT21 Unsupervised and Very Low-Resource Translation Task
Jindřich Libovický | Alexander Fraser

We present our submissions to the WMT21 shared task in Unsupervised and Very Low Resource machine translation between German and Upper Sorbian, German and Lower Sorbian, and Russian and Chuvash. Our low-resource systems (German↔Upper Sorbian, Russian↔Chuvash) are pre-trained on high-resource pairs of related languages. We fine-tune those systems using the available authentic parallel data and improve by iterated back-translation. The unsupervised German↔Lower Sorbian system is initialized by the best Upper Sorbian system and improved by iterated back-translation using monolingual data only.

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Language Model Pretraining and Transfer Learning for Very Low Resource Languages
Jyotsana Khatri | Rudra Murthy | Pushpak Bhattacharyya

This paper describes our submission for the shared task on Unsupervised MT and Very Low Resource Supervised MT at WMT 2021. We submitted systems for two language pairs: German ↔ Upper Sorbian (de ↔ hsb) and German-Lower Sorbian (de ↔ dsb). For de ↔ hsb, we pretrain our system using MASS (Masked Sequence to Sequence) objective and then finetune using iterative back-translation. Final finetunng is performed using the parallel data provided for translation objective. For de ↔ dsb, no parallel data is provided in the task, we use final de ↔ hsb model as initialization of the de ↔ dsb model and train it further using iterative back-translation, using the same vocabulary as used in the de ↔ hsb model.

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NRC-CNRC Systems for Upper Sorbian-German and Lower Sorbian-German Machine Translation 2021
Rebecca Knowles | Samuel Larkin

We describe our neural machine translation systems for the 2021 shared task on Unsupervised and Very Low Resource Supervised MT, translating between Upper Sorbian and German (low-resource) and between Lower Sorbian and German (unsupervised). The systems incorporated data filtering, backtranslation, BPE-dropout, ensembling, and transfer learning from high(er)-resource languages. As measured by automatic metrics, our systems showed strong performance, consistently placing first or tied for first across most metrics and translation directions.

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NoahNMT at WMT 2021: Dual Transfer for Very Low Resource Supervised Machine Translation
Meng Zhang | Minghao Wu | Pengfei Li | Liangyou Li | Qun Liu

This paper describes the NoahNMT system submitted to the WMT 2021 shared task of Very Low Resource Supervised Machine Translation. The system is a standard Transformer model equipped with our recent technique of dual transfer. It also employs widely used techniques that are known to be helpful for neural machine translation, including iterative back-translation, selected finetuning, and ensemble. The final submission achieves the top BLEU for three translation directions.

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cushLEPOR: customising hLEPOR metric using Optuna for higher agreement with human judgments or pre-trained language model LaBSE
Lifeng Han | Irina Sorokina | Gleb Erofeev | Serge Gladkoff

Human evaluation has always been expensive while researchers struggle to trust the automatic metrics. To address this, we propose to customise traditional metrics by taking advantages of the pre-trained language models (PLMs) and the limited available human labelled scores. We first re-introduce the hLEPOR metric factors, followed by the Python version we developed (ported) which achieved the automatic tuning of the weighting parameters in hLEPOR metric. Then we present the customised hLEPOR (cushLEPOR) which uses Optuna hyper-parameter optimisation framework to fine-tune hLEPOR weighting parameters towards better agreement to pre-trained language models (using LaBSE) regarding the exact MT language pairs that cushLEPOR is deployed to. We also optimise cushLEPOR towards professional human evaluation data based on MQM and pSQM framework on English-German and Chinese-English language pairs. The experimental investigations show cushLEPOR boosts hLEPOR performances towards better agreements to PLMs like LABSE with much lower cost, and better agreements to human evaluations including MQM and pSQM scores, and yields much better performances than BLEU. Official results show that our submissions win three language pairs including English-German and Chinese-English on News domain via cushLEPOR(LM) and English-Russian on TED domain via hLEPOR. (data available at https://github.com/poethan/cushLEPOR)

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MTEQA at WMT21 Metrics Shared Task
Mateusz Krubiński | Erfan Ghadery | Marie-Francine Moens | Pavel Pecina

In this paper, we describe our submission to the WMT 2021 Metrics Shared Task. We use the automatically-generated questions and answers to evaluate the quality of Machine Translation (MT) systems. Our submission builds upon the recently proposed MTEQA framework. Experiments on WMT20 evaluation datasets show that at the system-level the MTEQA metric achieves performance comparable with other state-of-the-art solutions, while considering only a certain amount of information from the whole translation.

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Are References Really Needed? Unbabel-IST 2021 Submission for the Metrics Shared Task
Ricardo Rei | Ana C Farinha | Chrysoula Zerva | Daan van Stigt | Craig Stewart | Pedro Ramos | Taisiya Glushkova | André F. T. Martins | Alon Lavie

In this paper, we present the joint contribution of Unbabel and IST to the WMT 2021 Metrics Shared Task. With this year’s focus on Multidimensional Quality Metric (MQM) as the ground-truth human assessment, our aim was to steer COMET towards higher correlations with MQM. We do so by first pre-training on Direct Assessments and then fine-tuning on z-normalized MQM scores. In our experiments we also show that reference-free COMET models are becoming competitive with reference-based models, even outperforming the best COMET model from 2020 on this year’s development data. Additionally, we present COMETinho, a lightweight COMET model that is 19x faster on CPU than the original model, while also achieving state-of-the-art correlations with MQM. Finally, in the “QE as a metric” track, we also participated with a QE model trained using the OpenKiwi framework leveraging MQM scores and word-level annotations.

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Regressive Ensemble for Machine Translation Quality Evaluation
Michal Stefanik | Vít Novotný | Petr Sojka

This work introduces a simple regressive ensemble for evaluating machine translation quality based on a set of novel and established metrics. We evaluate the ensemble using a correlation to expert-based MQM scores of the WMT 2021 Metrics workshop. In both monolingual and zero-shot cross-lingual settings, we show a significant performance improvement over single metrics. In the cross-lingual settings, we also demonstrate that an ensemble approach is well-applicable to unseen languages. Furthermore, we identify a strong reference-free baseline that consistently outperforms the commonly-used BLEU and METEOR measures and significantly improves our ensemble’s performance.

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Multilingual Machine Translation Evaluation Metrics Fine-tuned on Pseudo-Negative Examples for WMT 2021 Metrics Task
Kosuke Takahashi | Yoichi Ishibashi | Katsuhito Sudoh | Satoshi Nakamura

This paper describes our submission to the WMT2021 shared metrics task. Our metric is operative to segment-level and system-level translations. Our belief toward a better metric is to detect a significant error that cannot be missed in the real practice cases of evaluation. For that reason, we used pseudo-negative examples in which attributes of some words are transferred to the reversed attribute words, and we build evaluation models to handle such serious mistakes of translations. We fine-tune a multilingual largely pre-trained model on the provided corpus of past years’ metric task and fine-tune again further on the synthetic negative examples that are derived from the same fine-tune corpus. From the evaluation results of the WMT21’s development corpus, fine-tuning on the pseudo-negatives using WMT15-17 and WMT18-20 metric corpus achieved a better Pearson’s correlation score than the one fine-tuned without negative examples. Our submitted models,hyp+src_hyp+ref and hyp+src_hyp+ref.negative, are the plain model using WMT18-20 and the one additionally fine-tuned on negative samples, respectively.

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RoBLEURT Submission for WMT2021 Metrics Task
Yu Wan | Dayiheng Liu | Baosong Yang | Tianchi Bi | Haibo Zhang | Boxing Chen | Weihua Luo | Derek F. Wong | Lidia S. Chao

In this paper, we present our submission to Shared Metrics Task: RoBLEURT (Robustly Optimizing the training of BLEURT). After investigating the recent advances of trainable metrics, we conclude several aspects of vital importance to obtain a well-performed metric model by: 1) jointly leveraging the advantages of source-included model and reference-only model, 2) continuously pre-training the model with massive synthetic data pairs, and 3) fine-tuning the model with data denoising strategy. Experimental results show that our model reaching state-of-the-art correlations with the WMT2020 human annotations upon 8 out of 10 to-English language pairs.

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Linguistic Evaluation for the 2021 State-of-the-art Machine Translation Systems for German to English and English to German
Vivien Macketanz | Eleftherios Avramidis | Shushen Manakhimova | Sebastian Möller

We are using a semi-automated test suite in order to provide a fine-grained linguistic evaluation for state-of-the-art machine translation systems. The evaluation includes 18 German to English and 18 English to German systems, submitted to the Translation Shared Task of the 2021 Conference on Machine Translation. Our submission adds up to the submissions of the previous years by creating and applying a wide-range test suite for English to German as a new language pair. The fine-grained evaluation allows spotting significant differences between systems that cannot be distinguished by the direct assessment of the human evaluation campaign. We find that most of the systems achieve good accuracies in the majority of linguistic phenomena but there are few phenomena with lower accuracy, such as the idioms, the modal pluperfect and the German resultative predicates. Two systems have significantly better test suite accuracy in macro-average in every language direction, Online-W and Facebook-AI for German to English and VolcTrans and Online-W for English to German. The systems show a steady improvement as compared to previous years.

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Pruning Neural Machine Translation for Speed Using Group Lasso
Maximiliana Behnke | Kenneth Heafield

Unlike most work on pruning neural networks, we make inference faster. Group lasso regularisation enables pruning entire rows, columns or blocks of parameters that result in a smaller dense network. Because the network is still dense, efficient matrix multiply routines are still used and only minimal software changes are required to support variable layer sizes. Moreover, pruning is applied during training so there is no separate pruning step. Experiments on top of English->German models, which already have state-of-the-art speed and size, show that two-thirds of feedforward connections can be removed with 0.2 BLEU loss. With 6 decoder layers, the pruned model is 34% faster; with 2 tied decoder layers, the pruned model is 14% faster. Pruning entire heads and feedforward connections in a 12–1 encoder-decoder architecture gains an additional 51% speed-up. These push the Pareto frontier with respect to the trade-off between time and quality compared to strong baselines. In the WMT 2021 Efficiency Task, our pruned and quantised models are 1.9–2.7x faster at the cost 0.9–1.7 BLEU in comparison to the unoptimised baselines. Across language pairs, we see similar sparsity patterns: an ascending or U-shaped distribution in encoder feedforward and attention layers and an ascending distribution in the decoder.

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Phrase-level Active Learning for Neural Machine Translation
Junjie Hu | Graham Neubig

Neural machine translation (NMT) is sensitive to domain shift. In this paper, we address this problem in an active learning setting where we can spend a given budget on translating in-domain data, and gradually fine-tune a pre-trained out-of-domain NMT model on the newly translated data. Existing active learning methods for NMT usually select sentences based on uncertainty scores, but these methods require costly translation of full sentences even when only one or two key phrases within the sentence are informative. To address this limitation, we re-examine previous work from the phrase-based machine translation (PBMT) era that selected not full sentences, but rather individual phrases. However, while incorporating these phrases into PBMT systems was relatively simple, it is less trivial for NMT systems, which need to be trained on full sequences to capture larger structural properties of sentences unique to the new domain. To overcome these hurdles, we propose to select both full sentences and individual phrases from unlabelled data in the new domain for routing to human translators. In a German-English translation task, our active learning approach achieves consistent improvements over uncertainty-based sentence selection methods, improving up to 1.2 BLEU score over strong active learning baselines.

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Learning Feature Weights using Reward Modeling for Denoising Parallel Corpora
Gaurav Kumar | Philipp Koehn | Sanjeev Khudanpur

Large web-crawled corpora represent an excellent resource for improving the performance of Neural Machine Translation (NMT) systems across several language pairs. However, since these corpora are typically extremely noisy, their use is fairly limited. Current approaches to deal with this problem mainly focus on filtering using heuristics or single features such as language model scores or bi-lingual similarity. This work presents an alternative approach which learns weights for multiple sentence-level features. These feature weights which are optimized directly for the task of improving translation performance, are used to score and filter sentences in the noisy corpora more effectively. We provide results of applying this technique to building NMT systems using the Paracrawl corpus for Estonian-English and show that it beats strong single feature baselines and hand designed combinations. Additionally, we analyze the sensitivity of this method to different types of noise and explore if the learned weights generalize to other language pairs using the Maltese-English Paracrawl corpus.

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Monotonic Simultaneous Translation with Chunk-wise Reordering and Refinement
HyoJung Han | Seokchan Ahn | Yoonjung Choi | Insoo Chung | Sangha Kim | Kyunghyun Cho

Recent work in simultaneous machine translation is often trained with conventional full sentence translation corpora, leading to either excessive latency or necessity to anticipate as-yet-unarrived words, when dealing with a language pair whose word orders significantly differ. This is unlike human simultaneous interpreters who produce largely monotonic translations at the expense of the grammaticality of a sentence being translated. In this paper, we thus propose an algorithm to reorder and refine the target side of a full sentence translation corpus, so that the words/phrases between the source and target sentences are aligned largely monotonically, using word alignment and non-autoregressive neural machine translation. We then train a widely used wait-k simultaneous translation model on this reordered-and-refined corpus. The proposed approach improves BLEU scores and resulting translations exhibit enhanced monotonicity with source sentences.

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Simultaneous Neural Machine Translation with Constituent Label Prediction
Yasumasa Kano | Katsuhito Sudoh | Satoshi Nakamura

Simultaneous translation is a task in which translation begins before the speaker has finished speaking, so it is important to decide when to start the translation process. However, deciding whether to read more input words or start to translate is difficult for language pairs with different word orders such as English and Japanese. Motivated by the concept of pre-reordering, we propose a couple of simple decision rules using the label of the next constituent predicted by incremental constituent label prediction. In experiments on English-to-Japanese simultaneous translation, the proposed method outperformed baselines in the quality-latency trade-off.

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Contrastive Learning for Context-aware Neural Machine Translation Using Coreference Information
Yongkeun Hwang | Hyeongu Yun | Kyomin Jung

Context-aware neural machine translation (NMT) incorporates contextual information of surrounding texts, that can improve the translation quality of document-level machine translation. Many existing works on context-aware NMT have focused on developing new model architectures for incorporating additional contexts and have shown some promising results. However, most of existing works rely on cross-entropy loss, resulting in limited use of contextual information. In this paper, we propose CorefCL, a novel data augmentation and contrastive learning scheme based on coreference between the source and contextual sentences. By corrupting automatically detected coreference mentions in the contextual sentence, CorefCL can train the model to be sensitive to coreference inconsistency. We experimented with our method on common context-aware NMT models and two document-level translation tasks. In the experiments, our method consistently improved BLEU of compared models on English-German and English-Korean tasks. We also show that our method significantly improves coreference resolution in the English-German contrastive test suite.
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bib (full) Proceedings of the Seventh Workshop on Noisy User-generated Text (W-NUT 2021)

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Proceedings of the Seventh Workshop on Noisy User-generated Text (W-NUT 2021)
Wei Xu | Alan Ritter | Tim Baldwin | Afshin Rahimi

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Text Simplification for Comprehension-based Question-Answering
Tanvi Dadu | Kartikey Pant | Seema Nagar | Ferdous Barbhuiya | Kuntal Dey

Text simplification is the process of splitting and rephrasing a sentence to a sequence of sentences making it easier to read and understand while preserving the content and approximating the original meaning. Text simplification has been exploited in NLP applications like machine translation, summarization, semantic role labeling, and information extraction, opening a broad avenue for its exploitation in comprehension-based question-answering downstream tasks. In this work, we investigate the effect of text simplification in the task of question-answering using a comprehension context. We release Simple-SQuAD, a simplified version of the widely-used SQuAD dataset. Firstly, we outline each step in the dataset creation pipeline, including style transfer, thresholding of sentences showing correct transfer, and offset finding for each answer. Secondly, we verify the quality of the transferred sentences through various methodologies involving both automated and human evaluation. Thirdly, we benchmark the newly created corpus and perform an ablation study for examining the effect of the simplification process in the SQuAD-based question answering task. Our experiments show that simplification leads to up to 2.04% and 1.74% increase in Exact Match and F1, respectively. Finally, we conclude with an analysis of the transfer process, investigating the types of edits made by the model, and the effect of sentence length on the transfer model.

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Finding the needle in a haystack: Extraction of Informative COVID-19 Danish Tweets
Benjamin Olsen | Barbara Plank

Finding informative COVID-19 posts in a stream of tweets is very useful to monitor health-related updates. Prior work focused on a balanced data setup and on English, but informative tweets are rare, and English is only one of the many languages spoken in the world. In this work, we introduce a new dataset of 5,000 tweets for finding informative COVID-19 tweets for Danish. In contrast to prior work, which balances the label distribution, we model the problem by keeping its natural distribution. We examine how well a simple probabilistic model and a convolutional neural network (CNN) perform on this task. We find a weighted CNN to work well but it is sensitive to embedding and hyperparameter choices. We hope the contributed dataset is a starting point for further work in this direction.

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Detecting Depression in Thai Blog Posts: a Dataset and a Baseline
Mika Hämäläinen | Pattama Patpong | Khalid Alnajjar | Niko Partanen | Jack Rueter

We present the first openly available corpus for detecting depression in Thai. Our corpus is compiled by expert verified cases of depression in several online blogs. We experiment with two different LSTM based models and two different BERT based models. We achieve a 77.53% accuracy with a Thai BERT model in detecting depression. This establishes a good baseline for future researcher on the same corpus. Furthermore, we identify a need for Thai embeddings that have been trained on a more varied corpus than Wikipedia. Our corpus, code and trained models have been released openly on Zenodo.

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Keyphrase Extraction with Incomplete Annotated Training Data
Yanfei Lei | Chunming Hu | Guanghui Ma | Richong Zhang

Extracting keyphrases that summarize the main points of a document is a fundamental task in natural language processing. Supervised approaches to keyphrase extraction(KPE) are largely developed based on the assumption that the training data is fully annotated. However, due to the difficulty of keyphrase annotating, KPE models severely suffer from incomplete annotated problem in many scenarios. To this end, we propose a more robust training method that learns to mitigate the misguidance brought by unlabeled keyphrases. We introduce negative sampling to adjust training loss, and conduct experiments under different scenarios. Empirical studies on synthetic datasets and open domain dataset show that our model is robust to incomplete annotated problem and surpasses prior baselines. Extensive experiments on five scientific domain datasets of different scales demonstrate that our model is competitive with the state-of-the-art method.

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Fine-grained Temporal Relation Extraction with Ordered-Neuron LSTM and Graph Convolutional Networks
Minh Tran Phu | Minh Van Nguyen | Thien Huu Nguyen

Fine-grained temporal relation extraction (FineTempRel) aims to recognize the durations and timeline of event mentions in text. A missing part in the current deep learning models for FineTempRel is their failure to exploit the syntactic structures of the input sentences to enrich the representation vectors. In this work, we propose to fill this gap by introducing novel methods to integrate the syntactic structures into the deep learning models for FineTempRel. The proposed model focuses on two types of syntactic information from the dependency trees, i.e., the syntax-based importance scores for representation learning of the words and the syntactic connections to identify important context words for the event mentions. We also present two novel techniques to facilitate the knowledge transfer between the subtasks of FineTempRel, leading to a novel model with the state-of-the-art performance for this task.

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Does It Happen? Multi-hop Path Structures for Event Factuality Prediction with Graph Transformer Networks
Duong Le | Thien Huu Nguyen

The goal of Event Factuality Prediction (EFP) is to determine the factual degree of an event mention, representing how likely the event mention has happened in text. Current deep learning models has demonstrated the importance of syntactic and semantic structures of the sentences to identify important context words for EFP. However, the major problem with these EFP models is that they only encode the one-hop paths between the words (i.e., the direct connections) to form the sentence structures. In this work, we show that the multi-hop paths between the words are also necessary to compute the sentence structures for EFP. To this end, we introduce a novel deep learning model for EFP that explicitly considers multi-hop paths with both syntax-based and semantic-based edges between the words to obtain sentence structures for representation learning in EFP. We demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed model via the extensive experiments in this work.

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Google-trickers, Yaminjeongeum, and Leetspeak: An Empirical Taxonomy for Intentionally Noisy User-Generated Text
Won Ik Cho | Soomin Kim

WARNING: This article contains contents that may offend the readers. Strategies that insert intentional noise into text when posting it are commonly observed in the online space, and sometimes they aim to let only certain community users understand the genuine semantics. In this paper, we explore the purpose of such actions by categorizing them into tricks, memes, fillers, and codes, and organize the linguistic strategies that are used for each purpose. Through this, we identify that such strategies can be conducted by authors for multiple purposes, regarding the presence of stakeholders such as ‘Peers’ and ‘Others’. We finally analyze how these strategies appear differently in each circumstance, along with the unified taxonomy accompanying examples.

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Description-based Label Attention Classifier for Explainable ICD-9 Classification
Malte Feucht | Zhiliang Wu | Sophia Althammer | Volker Tresp

ICD-9 coding is a relevant clinical billing task, where unstructured texts with information about a patient’s diagnosis and treatments are annotated with multiple ICD-9 codes. Automated ICD-9 coding is an active research field, where CNN- and RNN-based model architectures represent the state-of-the-art approaches. In this work, we propose a description-based label attention classifier to improve the model explainability when dealing with noisy texts like clinical notes.

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A Text Editing Approach to Joint Japanese Word Segmentation, POS Tagging, and Lexical Normalization
Shohei Higashiyama | Masao Utiyama | Taro Watanabe | Eiichiro Sumita

Lexical normalization, in addition to word segmentation and part-of-speech tagging, is a fundamental task for Japanese user-generated text processing. In this paper, we propose a text editing model to solve the three task jointly and methods of pseudo-labeled data generation to overcome the problem of data deficiency. Our experiments showed that the proposed model achieved better normalization performance when trained on more diverse pseudo-labeled data.

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Intrinsic evaluation of language models for code-switching
Sik Feng Cheong | Hai Leong Chieu | Jing Lim

Language models used in speech recognition are often either evaluated intrinsically using perplexity on test data, or extrinsically with an automatic speech recognition (ASR) system. The former evaluation does not always correlate well with ASR performance, while the latter could be specific to particular ASR systems. Recent work proposed to evaluate language models by using them to classify ground truth sentences among alternative phonetically similar sentences generated by a fine state transducer. Underlying such an evaluation is the assumption that the generated sentences are linguistically incorrect. In this paper, we first put this assumption into question, and observe that alternatively generated sentences could often be linguistically correct when they differ from the ground truth by only one edit. Secondly, we showed that by using multi-lingual BERT, we can achieve better performance than previous work on two code-switching data sets. Our implementation is publicly available on Github at https://github.com/sikfeng/language-modelling-for-code-switching.

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Can images help recognize entities? A study of the role of images for Multimodal NER
Shuguang Chen | Gustavo Aguilar | Leonardo Neves | Thamar Solorio

Multimodal named entity recognition (MNER) requires to bridge the gap between language understanding and visual context. While many multimodal neural techniques have been proposed to incorporate images into the MNER task, the model’s ability to leverage multimodal interactions remains poorly understood. In this work, we conduct in-depth analyses of existing multimodal fusion techniques from different perspectives and describe the scenarios where adding information from the image does not always boost performance. We also study the use of captions as a way to enrich the context for MNER. Experiments on three datasets from popular social platforms expose the bottleneck of existing multimodal models and the situations where using captions is beneficial.

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Perceived and Intended Sarcasm Detection with Graph Attention Networks
Joan Plepi | Lucie Flek

Existing sarcasm detection systems focus on exploiting linguistic markers, context, or user-level priors. However, social studies suggest that the relationship between the author and the audience can be equally relevant for the sarcasm usage and interpretation. In this work, we propose a framework jointly leveraging (1) a user context from their historical tweets together with (2) the social information from a user’s conversational neighborhood in an interaction graph, to contextualize the interpretation of the post. We use graph attention networks (GAT) over users and tweets in a conversation thread, combined with dense user history representations. Apart from achieving state-of-the-art results on the recently published dataset of 19k Twitter users with 30K labeled tweets, adding 10M unlabeled tweets as context, our results indicate that the model contributes to interpreting the sarcastic intentions of an author more than to predicting the sarcasm perception by others.

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Hierarchical Character Tagger for Short Text Spelling Error Correction
Mengyi Gao | Canran Xu | Peng Shi

State-of-the-art approaches to spelling error correction problem include Transformer-based Seq2Seq models, which require large training sets and suffer from slow inference time; and sequence labeling models based on Transformer encoders like BERT, which involve token-level label space and therefore a large pre-defined vocabulary dictionary. In this paper we present a Hierarchical Character Tagger model, or HCTagger, for short text spelling error correction. We use a pre-trained language model at the character level as a text encoder, and then predict character-level edits to transform the original text into its error-free form with a much smaller label space. For decoding, we propose a hierarchical multi-task approach to alleviate the issue of long-tail label distribution without introducing extra model parameters. Experiments on two public misspelling correction datasets demonstrate that HCTagger is an accurate and much faster approach than many existing models.

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Common Sense Bias in Semantic Role Labeling
Heather Lent | Anders Søgaard

Large-scale language models such as ELMo and BERT have pushed the horizon of what is possible in semantic role labeling (SRL), solving the out-of-vocabulary problem and enabling end-to-end systems, but they have also introduced significant biases. We evaluate three SRL parsers on very simple transitive sentences with verbs usually associated with animate subjects and objects, such as, “Mary babysat Tom”: a state-of-the-art parser based on BERT, an older parser based on GloVe, and an even older parser from before the days of word embeddings. When arguments are word forms predominantly used as person names, aligning with common sense expectations of animacy, the BERT-based parser is unsurprisingly superior; yet, with abstract or random nouns, the opposite picture emerges. We refer to this as “common sense bias” and present a challenge dataset for evaluating the extent to which parsers are sensitive to such a bias. Our code and challenge dataset are available here: github.com/coastalcph/comte

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PoliWAM: An Exploration of a Large Scale Corpus of Political Discussions on WhatsApp Messenger
Vivek Srivastava | Mayank Singh

WhatsApp Messenger is one of the most popular channels for spreading information with a current reach of more than 180 countries and 2 billion people. Its widespread usage has made it one of the most popular media for information propagation among the masses during any socially engaging event. In the recent past, several countries have witnessed its effectiveness and influence in political and social campaigns. We observe a high surge in information and propaganda flow during election campaigning. In this paper, we explore a high-quality large-scale user-generated dataset curated from WhatsApp comprising of 281 groups, 31,078 unique users, and 223,404 messages shared before, during, and after the Indian General Elections 2019, encompassing all major Indian political parties and leaders. In addition to the raw noisy user-generated data, we present a fine-grained annotated dataset of 3,848 messages that will be useful to understand the various dimensions of WhatsApp political campaigning. We present several complementary insights into the investigative and sensational news stories from the same period. Exploratory data analysis and experiments showcase several exciting results and future research opportunities. To facilitate reproducible research, we make the anonymized datasets available in the public domain.

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ParsTwiNER: A Corpus for Named Entity Recognition at Informal Persian
MohammadMahdi Aghajani | AliAkbar Badri | Hamid Beigy

As a result of unstructured sentences and some misspellings and errors, finding named entities in a noisy environment such as social media takes much more effort. ParsTwiNER contains about 250k tokens, based on standard instructions like MUC-6 or CoNLL 2003, gathered from Persian Twitter. Using Cohen’s Kappa coefficient, the consistency of annotators is 0.95, a high score. In this study, we demonstrate that some state-of-the-art models degrade on these corpora, and trained a new model using parallel transfer learning based on the BERT architecture. Experimental results show that the model works well in informal Persian as well as in formal Persian.

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DreamDrug - A crowdsourced NER dataset for detecting drugs in darknet markets
Johannes Bogensperger | Sven Schlarb | Allan Hanbury | Gábor Recski

We present DreamDrug, a crowdsourced dataset for detecting mentions of drugs in noisy user-generated item listings from darknet markets. Our dataset contains nearly 15,000 manually annotated drug entities in over 3,500 item listings scraped from the darknet market platform “DreamMarket” in 2017. We also train and evaluate baseline models for detecting these entities, using contextual language models fine-tuned in a few-shot setting and on the full dataset, and examine the effect of pretraining on in-domain unannotated corpora.

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Comparing Grammatical Theories of Code-Mixing
Adithya Pratapa | Monojit Choudhury

Code-mixed text generation systems have found applications in many downstream tasks, including speech recognition, translation and dialogue. A paradigm of these generation systems relies on well-defined grammatical theories of code-mixing, and there is a lack of comparison of these theories. We present a large-scale human evaluation of two popular grammatical theories, Matrix-Embedded Language (ML) and Equivalence Constraint (EC). We compare them against three heuristic-based models and quantitatively demonstrate the effectiveness of the two grammatical theories.

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Improving Punctuation Restoration for Speech Transcripts via External Data
Xue-Yong Fu | Cheng Chen | Md Tahmid Rahman Laskar | Shashi Bhushan | Simon Corston-Oliver

Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) systems generally do not produce punctuated transcripts. To make transcripts more readable and follow the expected input format for downstream language models, it is necessary to add punctuation marks. In this paper, we tackle the punctuation restoration problem specifically for the noisy text (e.g., phone conversation scenarios). To leverage the available written text datasets, we introduce a data sampling technique based on an n-gram language model to sample more training data that are similar to our in-domain data. Moreover, we propose a two-stage fine-tuning approach that utilizes the sampled external data as well as our in-domain dataset for models based on BERT. Extensive experiments show that the proposed approach outperforms the baseline with an improvement of 1.12% F1 score.

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Learning to Rank Question Answer Pairs with Bilateral Contrastive Data Augmentation
Yang Deng | Wenxuan Zhang | Wai Lam

In this work, we propose a novel and easy-to-apply data augmentation strategy, namely Bilateral Generation (BiG), with a contrastive training objective for improving the performance of ranking question answer pairs with existing labeled data. In specific, we synthesize pseudo-positive QA pairs in contrast to the original negative QA pairs with two pre-trained generation models, one for question generation, the other for answer generation, which are fine-tuned on the limited positive QA pairs from the original dataset. With the augmented dataset, we design a contrastive training objective for learning to rank question answer pairs. Experimental results on three benchmark datasets show that our method significantly improves the performance of ranking models by making full use of existing labeled data and can be easily applied to different ranking models.

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Mitigation of Diachronic Bias in Fake News Detection Dataset
Taichi Murayama | Shoko Wakamiya | Eiji Aramaki

Fake news causes significant damage to society. To deal with these fake news, several studies on building detection models and arranging datasets have been conducted. Most of the fake news datasets depend on a specific time period. Consequently, the detection models trained on such a dataset have difficulty detecting novel fake news generated by political changes and social changes; they may possibly result in biased output from the input, including specific person names and organizational names. We refer to this problem as Diachronic Bias because it is caused by the creation date of news in each dataset. In this study, we confirm the bias, especially proper nouns including person names, from the deviation of phrase appearances in each dataset. Based on these findings, we propose masking methods using Wikidata to mitigate the influence of person names and validate whether they make fake news detection models robust through experiments with in-domain and out-of-domain data.

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Understanding the Impact of UGC Specificities on Translation Quality
José Carlos Rosales Núñez | Djamé Seddah | Guillaume Wisniewski

This work takes a critical look at the evaluation of user-generated content automatic translation, the well-known specificities of which raise many challenges for MT. Our analyses show that measuring the average-case performance using a standard metric on a UGC test set falls far short of giving a reliable image of the UGC translation quality. That is why we introduce a new data set for the evaluation of UGC translation in which UGC specificities have been manually annotated using a fine-grained typology. Using this data set, we conduct several experiments to measure the impact of different kinds of UGC specificities on translation quality, more precisely than previously possible.

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Noisy UGC Translation at the Character Level: Revisiting Open-Vocabulary Capabilities and Robustness of Char-Based Models
José Carlos Rosales Núñez | Guillaume Wisniewski | Djamé Seddah

This work explores the capacities of character-based Neural Machine Translation to translate noisy User-Generated Content (UGC) with a strong focus on exploring the limits of such approaches to handle productive UGC phenomena, which almost by definition, cannot be seen at training time. Within a strict zero-shot scenario, we first study the detrimental impact on translation performance of various user-generated content phenomena on a small annotated dataset we developed and then show that such models are indeed incapable of handling unknown letters, which leads to catastrophic translation failure once such characters are encountered. We further confirm this behavior with a simple, yet insightful, copy task experiment and highlight the importance of reducing the vocabulary size hyper-parameter to increase the robustness of character-based models for machine translation.

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Changes in Twitter geolocations: Insights and suggestions for future usage
Anna Kruspe | Matthias Häberle | Eike J. Hoffmann | Samyo Rode-Hasinger | Karam Abdulahhad | Xiao Xiang Zhu

Twitter data has become established as a valuable source of data for various application scenarios in the past years. For many such applications, it is necessary to know where Twitter posts (tweets) were sent from or what location they refer to. Researchers have frequently used exact coordinates provided in a small percentage of tweets, but Twitter removed the option to share these coordinates in mid-2019. Moreover, there is reason to suspect that a large share of the provided coordinates did not correspond to GPS coordinates of the user even before that. In this paper, we explain the situation and the 2019 policy change and shed light on the various options of still obtaining location information from tweets. We provide usage statistics including changes over time, and analyze what the removal of exact coordinates means for various common research tasks performed with Twitter data. Finally, we make suggestions for future research requiring geolocated tweets.

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ConQuest: Contextual Question Paraphrasing through Answer-Aware Synthetic Question Generation
Mostafa Mirshekari | Jing Gu | Aaron Sisto

Despite excellent performance on tasks such as question answering, Transformer-based architectures remain sensitive to syntactic and contextual ambiguities. Question Paraphrasing (QP) offers a promising solution as a means to augment existing datasets. The main challenges of current QP models include lack of training data and difficulty in generating diverse and natural questions. In this paper, we present Conquest, a framework for generating synthetic datasets for contextual question paraphrasing. To this end, Conquest first employs an answer-aware question generation (QG) model to create a question-pair dataset and then uses this data to train a contextualized question paraphrasing model. We extensively evaluate Conquest and show its ability to produce more diverse and fluent question pairs than existing approaches. Our contextual paraphrase model also establishes a strong baseline for end-to-end contextual paraphrasing. Further, We find that context can improve BLEU-1 score on contextual compression and expansion by 4.3 and 11.2 respectively, compared to a non-contextual model.

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NADE: A Benchmark for Robust Adverse Drug Events Extraction in Face of Negations
Simone Scaboro | Beatrice Portelli | Emmanuele Chersoni | Enrico Santus | Giuseppe Serra

Adverse Drug Event (ADE) extraction models can rapidly examine large collections of social media texts, detecting mentions of drug-related adverse reactions and trigger medical investigations. However, despite the recent advances in NLP, it is currently unknown if such models are robust in face of negation, which is pervasive across language varieties. In this paper we evaluate three state-of-the-art systems, showing their fragility against negation, and then we introduce two possible strategies to increase the robustness of these models: a pipeline approach, relying on a specific component for negation detection; an augmentation of an ADE extraction dataset to artificially create negated samples and further train the models. We show that both strategies bring significant increases in performance, lowering the number of spurious entities predicted by the models. Our dataset and code will be publicly released to encourage research on the topic.

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SpanAlign: Efficient Sequence Tagging Annotation Projection into Translated Data applied to Cross-Lingual Opinion Mining
Léo Jacqmin | Gabriel Marzinotto | Justyna Gromada | Ewelina Szczekocka | Robert Kołodyński | Géraldine Damnati

Following the increasing performance of neural machine translation systems, the paradigm of using automatically translated data for cross-lingual adaptation is now studied in several applicative domains. The capacity to accurately project annotations remains however an issue for sequence tagging tasks where annotation must be projected with correct spans. Additionally, when the task implies noisy user-generated text, the quality of translation and annotation projection can be affected. In this paper we propose to tackle multilingual sequence tagging with a new span alignment method and apply it to opinion target extraction from customer reviews. We show that provided suitable heuristics, translated data with automatic span-level annotation projection can yield improvements both for cross-lingual adaptation compared to zero-shot transfer, and data augmentation compared to a multilingual baseline.

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A Novel Framework for Detecting Important Subevents from Crisis Events via Dynamic Semantic Graphs
Evangelia Spiliopoulou | Tanay Kumar Saha | Joel Tetreault | Alejandro Jaimes

Social media is an essential tool to share information about crisis events, such as natural disasters. Event Detection aims at extracting information in the form of an event, but considers each event in isolation, without combining information across sentences or events. Many posts in Crisis NLP contain repetitive or complementary information which needs to be aggregated (e.g., the number of trapped people and their location) for disaster response. Although previous approaches in Crisis NLP aggregate information across posts, they only use shallow representations of the content (e.g., keywords), which cannot adequately represent the semantics of a crisis event and its sub-events. In this work, we propose a novel framework to extract critical sub-events from a large-scale crisis event by combining important information across relevant tweets. Our framework first converts all the tweets from a crisis event into a temporally-ordered set of graphs. Then it extracts sub-graphs that represent semantic relationships connecting verbs and nouns in 3 to 6 node sub-graphs. It does this by learning edge weights via Dynamic Graph Convolutional Networks (DGCNs) and extracting smaller, relevant sub-graphs. Our experiments show that our extracted structures (1) are semantically meaningful sub-events and (2) contain information important for the large crisis-event. Furthermore, we show that our approach significantly outperforms event detection baselines, highlighting the importance of aggregating information across tweets for our task.

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Synthetic Data Generation and Multi-Task Learning for Extracting Temporal Information from Health-Related Narrative Text
Heereen Shim | Dietwig Lowet | Stijn Luca | Bart Vanrumste

Extracting temporal information is critical to process health-related text. Temporal information extraction is a challenging task for language models because it requires processing both texts and numbers. Moreover, the fundamental challenge is how to obtain a large-scale training dataset. To address this, we propose a synthetic data generation algorithm. Also, we propose a novel multi-task temporal information extraction model and investigate whether multi-task learning can contribute to performance improvement by exploiting additional training signals with the existing training data. For experiments, we collected a custom dataset containing unstructured texts with temporal information of sleep-related activities. Experimental results show that utilising synthetic data can improve the performance when the augmentation factor is 3. The results also show that when multi-task learning is used with an appropriate amount of synthetic data, the performance can significantly improve from 82. to 88.6 and from 83.9 to 91.9 regarding micro-and macro-average exact match scores of normalised time prediction, respectively.

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Neural-based RST Parsing And Analysis In Persuasive Discourse
Jinfen Li | Lu Xiao

Most of the existing studies of language use in social media content have focused on the surface-level linguistic features (e.g., function words and punctuation marks) and the semantic level aspects (e.g., the topics, sentiment, and emotions) of the comments. The writer’s strategies of constructing and connecting text segments have not been widely explored even though this knowledge is expected to shed light on how people reason in online environments. Contributing to this analysis direction for social media studies, we build an openly accessible neural RST parsing system that analyzes discourse relations in an online comment. Our experiments demonstrate that this system achieves comparable performance among all the neural RST parsing systems. To demonstrate the use of this tool in social media analysis, we apply it to identify the discourse relations in persuasive and non-persuasive comments and examine the relationships among the binary discourse tree depth, discourse relations, and the perceived persuasiveness of online comments. Our work demonstrates the potential of analyzing discourse structures of online comments with our system and the implications of these structures for understanding online communications.

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BART for Post-Correction of OCR Newspaper Text
Elizabeth Soper | Stanley Fujimoto | Yen-Yun Yu

Optical character recognition (OCR) from newspaper page images is susceptible to noise due to degradation of old documents and variation in typesetting. In this report, we present a novel approach to OCR post-correction. We cast error correction as a translation task, and fine-tune BART, a transformer-based sequence-to-sequence language model pretrained to denoise corrupted text. We are the first to use sentence-level transformer models for OCR post-correction, and our best model achieves a 29.4% improvement in character accuracy over the original noisy OCR text. Our results demonstrate the utility of pretrained language models for dealing with noisy text.

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Coping with Noisy Training Data Labels in Paraphrase Detection
Teemu Vahtola | Mathias Creutz | Eetu Sjöblom | Sami Itkonen

We present new state-of-the-art benchmarks for paraphrase detection on all six languages in the Opusparcus sentential paraphrase corpus: English, Finnish, French, German, Russian, and Swedish. We reach these baselines by fine-tuning BERT. The best results are achieved on smaller and cleaner subsets of the training sets than was observed in previous research. Additionally, we study a translation-based approach that is competitive for the languages with more limited and noisier training data.

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Knowledge Distillation with Noisy Labels for Natural Language Understanding
Shivendra Bhardwaj | Abbas Ghaddar | Ahmad Rashid | Khalil Bibi | Chengyang Li | Ali Ghodsi | Phillippe Langlais | Mehdi Rezagholizadeh

Knowledge Distillation (KD) is extensively used to compress and deploy large pre-trained language models on edge devices for real-world applications. However, one neglected area of research is the impact of noisy (corrupted) labels on KD. We present, to the best of our knowledge, the first study on KD with noisy labels in Natural Language Understanding (NLU). We document the scope of the problem and present two methods to mitigate the impact of label noise. Experiments on the GLUE benchmark show that our methods are effective even under high noise levels. Nevertheless, our results indicate that more research is necessary to cope with label noise under the KD.

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Integrating Transformers and Knowledge Graphs for Twitter Stance Detection
Thomas Clark | Costanza Conforti | Fangyu Liu | Zaiqiao Meng | Ehsan Shareghi | Nigel Collier

Stance detection (SD) entails classifying the sentiment of a text towards a given target, and is a relevant sub-task for opinion mining and social media analysis. Recent works have explored knowledge infusion supplementing the linguistic competence and latent knowledge of large pre-trained language models with structured knowledge graphs (KGs), yet few works have applied such methods to the SD task. In this work, we first perform stance-relevant knowledge probing on Transformers-based pre-trained models in a zero-shot setting, showing these models’ latent real-world knowledge about SD targets and their sensitivity to context. We then train and evaluate new knowledge-enriched stance detection models on two Twitter stance datasets, achieving state-of-the-art performance on both.

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Detecting Cross-Geographic Biases in Toxicity Modeling on Social Media
Sayan Ghosh | Dylan Baker | David Jurgens | Vinodkumar Prabhakaran

Online social media platforms increasingly rely on Natural Language Processing (NLP) techniques to detect abusive content at scale in order to mitigate the harms it causes to their users. However, these techniques suffer from various sampling and association biases present in training data, often resulting in sub-par performance on content relevant to marginalized groups, potentially furthering disproportionate harms towards them. Studies on such biases so far have focused on only a handful of axes of disparities and subgroups that have annotations/lexicons available. Consequently, biases concerning non-Western contexts are largely ignored in the literature. In this paper, we introduce a weakly supervised method to robustly detect lexical biases in broader geo-cultural contexts. Through a case study on a publicly available toxicity detection model, we demonstrate that our method identifies salient groups of cross-geographic errors, and, in a follow up, demonstrate that these groupings reflect human judgments of offensive and inoffensive language in those geographic contexts. We also conduct analysis of a model trained on a dataset with ground truth labels to better understand these biases, and present preliminary mitigation experiments.

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Detection of Puffery on the English Wikipedia
Amanda Bertsch | Steven Bethard

On Wikipedia, an online crowdsourced encyclopedia, volunteers enforce the encyclopedia’s editorial policies. Wikipedia’s policy on maintaining a neutral point of view has inspired recent research on bias detection, including “weasel words” and “hedges”. Yet to date, little work has been done on identifying “puffery,” phrases that are overly positive without a verifiable source. We demonstrate that collecting training data for this task requires some care, and construct a dataset by combining Wikipedia editorial annotations and information retrieval techniques. We compare several approaches to predicting puffery, and achieve 0.963 f1 score by incorporating citation features into a RoBERTa model. Finally, we demonstrate how to integrate our model with Wikipedia’s public infrastructure to give back to the Wikipedia editor community.

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Robustness and Sensitivity of BERT Models Predicting Alzheimer’s Disease from Text
Jekaterina Novikova

Understanding robustness and sensitivity of BERT models predicting Alzheimer’s disease from text is important for both developing better classification models and for understanding their capabilities and limitations. In this paper, we analyze how a controlled amount of desired and undesired text alterations impacts performance of BERT. We show that BERT is robust to natural linguistic variations in text. On the other hand, we show that BERT is not sensitive to removing clinically important information from text.

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Understanding Model Robustness to User-generated Noisy Texts
Jakub Náplava | Martin Popel | Milan Straka | Jana Straková

Sensitivity of deep-neural models to input noise is known to be a challenging problem. In NLP, model performance often deteriorates with naturally occurring noise, such as spelling errors. To mitigate this issue, models may leverage artificially noised data. However, the amount and type of generated noise has so far been determined arbitrarily. We therefore propose to model the errors statistically from grammatical-error-correction corpora. We present a thorough evaluation of several state-of-the-art NLP systems’ robustness in multiple languages, with tasks including morpho-syntactic analysis, named entity recognition, neural machine translation, a subset of the GLUE benchmark and reading comprehension. We also compare two approaches to address the performance drop: a) training the NLP models with noised data generated by our framework; and b) reducing the input noise with external system for natural language correction. The code is released at https://github.com/ufal/kazitext.

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CIDEr-R: Robust Consensus-based Image Description Evaluation
Gabriel Oliveira dos Santos | Esther Luna Colombini | Sandra Avila

This paper shows that CIDEr-D, a traditional evaluation metric for image description, does not work properly on datasets where the number of words in the sentence is significantly greater than those in the MS COCO Captions dataset. We also show that CIDEr-D has performance hampered by the lack of multiple reference sentences and high variance of sentence length. To bypass this problem, we introduce CIDEr-R, which improves CIDEr-D, making it more flexible in dealing with datasets with high sentence length variance. We demonstrate that CIDEr-R is more accurate and closer to human judgment than CIDEr-D; CIDEr-R is more robust regarding the number of available references. Our results reveal that using Self-Critical Sequence Training to optimize CIDEr-R generates descriptive captions. In contrast, when CIDEr-D is optimized, the generated captions’ length tends to be similar to the reference length. However, the models also repeat several times the same word to increase the sentence length.

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Improved Named Entity Recognition for Noisy Call Center Transcripts
Sam Davidson | Jordan Hosier | Yu Zhou | Vijay Gurbani

We explore the application of state-of-the-art NER algorithms to ASR-generated call center transcripts. Previous work in this domain focused on the use of a BiLSTM-CRF model which relied on Flair embeddings; however, such a model is unwieldy in terms of latency and memory consumption. In a production environment, end users require low-latency models which can be readily integrated into existing pipelines. To that end, we present two different models which can be utilized based on the latency and accuracy requirements of the user. First, we propose a set of models which utilize state-of-the-art Transformer language models (RoBERTa) to develop a high-accuracy NER system trained on custom annotated set of call center transcripts. We then use our best-performing Transformer-based model to label a large number of transcripts, which we use to pretrain a BiLSTM-CRF model and further fine-tune on our annotated dataset. We show that this model, while not as accurate as its Transformer-based counterpart, is highly effective in identifying items which require redaction for privacy law compliance. Further, we propose a new general annotation scheme for NER in the call-center environment.

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Contrapositive Local Class Inference
Omid Kashefi | Rebecca Hwa

Certain types of classification problems may be performed at multiple levels of granularity; for example, we might want to know the sentiment polarity of a document or a sentence, or a phrase. Often, the prediction at a greater-context (e.g., sentences or paragraphs) may be informative for a more localized prediction at a smaller semantic unit (e.g., words or phrases). However, directly inferring the most salient local features from the global prediction may overlook the semantics of this relationship. This work argues that inference along the contraposition relationship of the local prediction and the corresponding global prediction makes an inference framework that is more accurate and robust to noise. We show how this contraposition framework can be implemented as a transfer function that rewrites a greater-context from one class to another and demonstrate how an appropriate transfer function can be trained from a noisy user-generated corpus. The experimental results validate our insight that the proposed contrapositive framework outperforms the alternative approaches on resource-constrained problem domains.

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Improved Multilingual Language Model Pretraining for Social Media Text via Translation Pair Prediction
Shubhanshu Mishra | Aria Haghighi

We evaluate a simple approach to improving zero-shot multilingual transfer of mBERT on social media corpus by adding a pretraining task called translation pair prediction (TPP), which predicts whether a pair of cross-lingual texts are a valid translation. Our approach assumes access to translations (exact or approximate) between source-target language pairs, where we fine-tune a model on source language task data and evaluate the model in the target language. In particular, we focus on language pairs where transfer learning is difficult for mBERT: those where source and target languages are different in script, vocabulary, and linguistic typology. We show improvements from TPP pretraining over mBERT alone in zero-shot transfer from English to Hindi, Arabic, and Japanese on two social media tasks: NER (a 37% average relative improvement in F1 across target languages) and sentiment classification (12% relative improvement in F1) on social media text, while also benchmarking on a non-social media task of Universal Dependency POS tagging (6.7% relative improvement in accuracy). Our results are promising given the lack of social media bitext corpus. Our code can be found at: https://github.com/twitter-research/multilingual-alignment-tpp.

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Co-training for Commit Classification
Jian Yi David Lee | Hai Leong Chieu

Commits in version control systems (e.g. Git) track changes in a software project. Commits comprise noisy user-generated natural language and code patches. Automatic commit classification (CC) has been used to determine the type of code maintenance activities performed, as well as to detect bug fixes in code repositories. Much prior work occurs in the fully-supervised setting – a setting that can be a stretch in resource-scarce situations presenting difficulties in labeling commits. In this paper, we apply co-training, a semi-supervised learning method, to take advantage of the two views available – the commit message (natural language) and the code changes (programming language) – to improve commit classification.

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Study of Manifestation of Civil Unrest on Twitter
Abhinav Chinta | Jingyu Zhang | Alexandra DeLucia | Mark Dredze | Anna L. Buczak

Twitter is commonly used for civil unrest detection and forecasting tasks, but there is a lack of work in evaluating how civil unrest manifests on Twitter across countries and events. We present two in-depth case studies for two specific large-scale events, one in a country with high (English) Twitter usage (Johannesburg riots in South Africa) and one in a country with low Twitter usage (Burayu massacre protests in Ethiopia). We show that while there is event signal during the events, there is little signal leading up to the events. In addition to the case studies, we train Ngram-based models on a larger set of Twitter civil unrest data across time, events, and countries and use machine learning explainability tools (SHAP) to identify important features. The models were able to find words indicative of civil unrest that generalized across countries. The 42 countries span Africa, Middle East, and Southeast Asia and the events range occur between 2014 and 2019.

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The Korean Morphologically Tight-Fitting Tokenizer for Noisy User-Generated Texts
Sangah Lee | Hyopil Shin

User-generated texts include various types of stylistic properties, or noises. Such texts are not properly processed by existing morpheme analyzers or language models based on formal texts such as encyclopedias or news articles. In this paper, we propose a simple morphologically tight-fitting tokenizer (K-MT) that can better process proper nouns, coinages, and internet slang among other types of noise in Korean user-generated texts. We tested our tokenizer by performing classification tasks on Korean user-generated movie reviews and hate speech datasets, and the Korean Named Entity Recognition dataset. Through our tests, we found that K-MT is better fit to process internet slangs, proper nouns, and coinages, compared to a morpheme analyzer and a character-level WordPiece tokenizer.

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Character Transformations for Non-Autoregressive GEC Tagging
Milan Straka | Jakub Náplava | Jana Straková

We propose a character-based non-autoregressive GEC approach, with automatically generated character transformations. Recently, per-word classification of correction edits has proven an efficient, parallelizable alternative to current encoder-decoder GEC systems. We show that word replacement edits may be suboptimal and lead to explosion of rules for spelling, diacritization and errors in morphologically rich languages, and propose a method for generating character transformations from GEC corpus. Finally, we train character transformation models for Czech, German and Russian, reaching solid results and dramatic speedup compared to autoregressive systems. The source code is released at https://github.com/ufal/wnut2021_character_transformations_gec.

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Can Character-based Language Models Improve Downstream Task Performances In Low-Resource And Noisy Language Scenarios?
Arij Riabi | Benoît Sagot | Djamé Seddah

Recent impressive improvements in NLP, largely based on the success of contextual neural language models, have been mostly demonstrated on at most a couple dozen high- resource languages. Building language mod- els and, more generally, NLP systems for non- standardized and low-resource languages remains a challenging task. In this work, we fo- cus on North-African colloquial dialectal Arabic written using an extension of the Latin script, called NArabizi, found mostly on social media and messaging communication. In this low-resource scenario with data display- ing a high level of variability, we compare the downstream performance of a character-based language model on part-of-speech tagging and dependency parsing to that of monolingual and multilingual models. We show that a character-based model trained on only 99k sentences of NArabizi and fined-tuned on a small treebank of this language leads to performance close to those obtained with the same architecture pre- trained on large multilingual and monolingual models. Confirming these results a on much larger data set of noisy French user-generated content, we argue that such character-based language models can be an asset for NLP in low-resource and high language variability set- tings.

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“Something Something Hota Hai!” An Explainable Approach towards Sentiment Analysis on Indian Code-Mixed Data
Aman Priyanshu | Aleti Vardhan | Sudarshan Sivakumar | Supriti Vijay | Nipuna Chhabra

The increasing use of social media sites in countries like India has given rise to large volumes of code-mixed data. Sentiment analysis of this data can provide integral insights into people’s perspectives and opinions. Code-mixed data is often noisy in nature due to multiple spellings for the same word, lack of definite order of words in a sentence, and random abbreviations. Thus, working with code-mixed data is more challenging than monolingual data. Interpreting a model’s predictions allows us to determine the robustness of the model against different forms of noise. In this paper, we propose a methodology to integrate explainable approaches into code-mixed sentiment analysis. By interpreting the predictions of sentiment analysis models we evaluate how well the model is able to adapt to the implicit noises present in code-mixed data.

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BERTweetFR : Domain Adaptation of Pre-Trained Language Models for French Tweets
Yanzhu Guo | Virgile Rennard | Christos Xypolopoulos | Michalis Vazirgiannis

We introduce BERTweetFR, the first large-scale pre-trained language model for French tweets. Our model is initialised using a general-domain French language model CamemBERT which follows the base architecture of BERT. Experiments show that BERTweetFR outperforms all previous general-domain French language models on two downstream Twitter NLP tasks of offensiveness identification and named entity recognition. The dataset used in the offensiveness detection task is first created and annotated by our team, filling in the gap of such analytic datasets in French. We make our model publicly available in the transformers library with the aim of promoting future research in analytic tasks for French tweets.

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To What Extent Does Lexical Normalization Help English-as-a-Second Language Learners to Read Noisy English Texts?
Yo Ehara

How difficult is it for English-as-a-second language (ESL) learners to read noisy English texts? Do ESL learners need lexical normalization to read noisy English texts? These questions may also affect community formation on social networking sites where differences can be attributed to ESL learners and native English speakers. However, few studies have addressed these questions. To this end, we built highly accurate readability assessors to evaluate the readability of texts for ESL learners. We then applied these assessors to noisy English texts to further assess the readability of the texts. The experimental results showed that although intermediate-level ESL learners can read most noisy English texts in the first place, lexical normalization significantly improves the readability of noisy English texts for ESL learners.

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Multilingual Sequence Labeling Approach to solve Lexical Normalization
Divesh Kubal | Apurva Nagvenkar

The task of converting a nonstandard text to a standard and readable text is known as lexical normalization. Almost all the Natural Language Processing (NLP) applications require the text data in normalized form to build quality task-specific models. Hence, lexical normalization has been proven to improve the performance of numerous natural language processing tasks on social media. This study aims to solve the problem of Lexical Normalization by formulating the Lexical Normalization task as a Sequence Labeling problem. This paper proposes a sequence labeling approach to solve the problem of Lexical Normalization in combination with the word-alignment technique. The goal is to use a single model to normalize text in various languages namely Croatian, Danish, Dutch, English, Indonesian-English, German, Italian, Serbian, Slovenian, Spanish, Turkish, and Turkish-German. This is a shared task in “2021 The 7th Workshop on Noisy User-generated Text (W-NUT)” in which the participants are expected to create a system/model that performs lexical normalization, which is the translation of non-canonical texts into their canonical equivalents, comprising data from over 12 languages. The proposed single multilingual model achieves an overall ERR score of 43.75 on intrinsic evaluation and an overall Labeled Attachment Score (LAS) score of 63.12 on extrinsic evaluation. Further, the proposed method achieves the highest Error Reduction Rate (ERR) score of 61.33 among the participants in the shared task. This study highlights the effects of using additional training data to get better results as well as using a pre-trained Language model trained on multiple languages rather than only on one language.

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Sesame Street to Mount Sinai: BERT-constrained character-level Moses models for multilingual lexical normalization
Yves Scherrer | Nikola Ljubešić

This paper describes the HEL-LJU submissions to the MultiLexNorm shared task on multilingual lexical normalization. Our system is based on a BERT token classification preprocessing step, where for each token the type of the necessary transformation is predicted (none, uppercase, lowercase, capitalize, modify), and a character-level SMT step where the text is translated from original to normalized given the BERT-predicted transformation constraints. For some languages, depending on the results on development data, the training data was extended by back-translating OpenSubtitles data. In the final ordering of the ten participating teams, the HEL-LJU team has taken the second place, scoring better than the previous state-of-the-art.

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Sequence-to-Sequence Lexical Normalization with Multilingual Transformers
Ana-Maria Bucur | Adrian Cosma | Liviu P. Dinu

Current benchmark tasks for natural language processing contain text that is qualitatively different from the text used in informal day to day digital communication. This discrepancy has led to severe performance degradation of state-of-the-art NLP models when fine-tuned on real-world data. One way to resolve this issue is through lexical normalization, which is the process of transforming non-standard text, usually from social media, into a more standardized form. In this work, we propose a sentence-level sequence-to-sequence model based on mBART, which frames the problem as a machine translation problem. As the noisy text is a pervasive problem across languages, not just English, we leverage the multi-lingual pre-training of mBART to fine-tune it to our data. While current approaches mainly operate at the word or subword level, we argue that this approach is straightforward from a technical standpoint and builds upon existing pre-trained transformer networks. Our results show that while word-level, intrinsic, performance evaluation is behind other methods, our model improves performance on extrinsic, downstream tasks through normalization compared to models operating on raw, unprocessed, social media text.

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ÚFAL at MultiLexNorm 2021: Improving Multilingual Lexical Normalization by Fine-tuning ByT5
David Samuel | Milan Straka

We present the winning entry to the Multilingual Lexical Normalization (MultiLexNorm) shared task at W-NUT 2021 (van der Goot et al., 2021a), which evaluates lexical-normalization systems on 12 social media datasets in 11 languages. We base our solution on a pre-trained byte-level language model, ByT5 (Xue et al., 2021a), which we further pre-train on synthetic data and then fine-tune on authentic normalization data. Our system achieves the best performance by a wide margin in intrinsic evaluation, and also the best performance in extrinsic evaluation through dependency parsing. The source code is released at https://github.com/ufal/multilexnorm2021 and the fine-tuned models at https://huggingface.co/ufal.

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MultiLexNorm: A Shared Task on Multilingual Lexical Normalization
Rob van der Goot | Alan Ramponi | Arkaitz Zubiaga | Barbara Plank | Benjamin Muller | Iñaki San Vicente Roncal | Nikola Ljubešić | Özlem Çetinoğlu | Rahmad Mahendra | Talha Çolakoğlu | Timothy Baldwin | Tommaso Caselli | Wladimir Sidorenko

Lexical normalization is the task of transforming an utterance into its standardized form. This task is beneficial for downstream analysis, as it provides a way to harmonize (often spontaneous) linguistic variation. Such variation is typical for social media on which information is shared in a multitude of ways, including diverse languages and code-switching. Since the seminal work of Han and Baldwin (2011) a decade ago, lexical normalization has attracted attention in English and multiple other languages. However, there exists a lack of a common benchmark for comparison of systems across languages with a homogeneous data and evaluation setup. The MultiLexNorm shared task sets out to fill this gap. We provide the largest publicly available multilingual lexical normalization benchmark including 13 language variants. We propose a homogenized evaluation setup with both intrinsic and extrinsic evaluation. As extrinsic evaluation, we use dependency parsing and part-of-speech tagging with adapted evaluation metrics (a-LAS, a-UAS, and a-POS) to account for alignment discrepancies. The shared task hosted at W-NUT 2021 attracted 9 participants and 18 submissions. The results show that neural normalization systems outperform the previous state-of-the-art system by a large margin. Downstream parsing and part-of-speech tagging performance is positively affected but to varying degrees, with improvements of up to 1.72 a-LAS, 0.85 a-UAS, and 1.54 a-POS for the winning system.

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CL-MoNoise: Cross-lingual Lexical Normalization
Rob van der Goot

Social media is notoriously difficult to process for existing natural language processing tools, because of spelling errors, non-standard words, shortenings, non-standard capitalization and punctuation. One method to circumvent these issues is to normalize input data before processing. Most previous work has focused on only one language, which is mostly English. In this paper, we are the first to propose a model for cross-lingual normalization, with which we participate in the WNUT 2021 shared task. To this end, we use MoNoise as a starting point, and make a simple adaptation for cross-lingual application. Our proposed model outperforms the leave-as-is baseline provided by the organizers which copies the input. Furthermore, we explore a completely different model which converts the task to a sequence labeling task. Performance of this second system is low, as it does not take capitalization into account in our implementation.
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Proceedings of the 5th Workshop on Online Abuse and Harms (WOAH 2021)
Aida Mostafazadeh Davani | Douwe Kiela | Mathias Lambert | Bertie Vidgen | Vinodkumar Prabhakaran | Zeerak Waseem

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Exploiting Auxiliary Data for Offensive Language Detection with Bidirectional Transformers
Sumer Singh | Sheng Li

Offensive language detection (OLD) has received increasing attention due to its societal impact. Recent work shows that bidirectional transformer based methods obtain impressive performance on OLD. However, such methods usually rely on large-scale well-labeled OLD datasets for model training. To address the issue of data/label scarcity in OLD, in this paper, we propose a simple yet effective domain adaptation approach to train bidirectional transformers. Our approach introduces domain adaptation (DA) training procedures to ALBERT, such that it can effectively exploit auxiliary data from source domains to improve the OLD performance in a target domain. Experimental results on benchmark datasets show that our approach, ALBERT (DA), obtains the state-of-the-art performance in most cases. Particularly, our approach significantly benefits underrepresented and under-performing classes, with a significant improvement over ALBERT.

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Modeling Profanity and Hate Speech in Social Media with Semantic Subspaces
Vanessa Hahn | Dana Ruiter | Thomas Kleinbauer | Dietrich Klakow

Hate speech and profanity detection suffer from data sparsity, especially for languages other than English, due to the subjective nature of the tasks and the resulting annotation incompatibility of existing corpora. In this study, we identify profane subspaces in word and sentence representations and explore their generalization capability on a variety of similar and distant target tasks in a zero-shot setting. This is done monolingually (German) and cross-lingually to closely-related (English), distantly-related (French) and non-related (Arabic) tasks. We observe that, on both similar and distant target tasks and across all languages, the subspace-based representations transfer more effectively than standard BERT representations in the zero-shot setting, with improvements between F1 +10.9 and F1 +42.9 over the baselines across all tested monolingual and cross-lingual scenarios.

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HateBERT: Retraining BERT for Abusive Language Detection in English
Tommaso Caselli | Valerio Basile | Jelena Mitrović | Michael Granitzer

We introduce HateBERT, a re-trained BERT model for abusive language detection in English. The model was trained on RAL-E, a large-scale dataset of Reddit comments in English from communities banned for being offensive, abusive, or hateful that we have curated and made available to the public. We present the results of a detailed comparison between a general pre-trained language model and the retrained version on three English datasets for offensive, abusive language and hate speech detection tasks. In all datasets, HateBERT outperforms the corresponding general BERT model. We also discuss a battery of experiments comparing the portability of the fine-tuned models across the datasets, suggesting that portability is affected by compatibility of the annotated phenomena.

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Memes in the Wild: Assessing the Generalizability of the Hateful Memes Challenge Dataset
Hannah Kirk | Yennie Jun | Paulius Rauba | Gal Wachtel | Ruining Li | Xingjian Bai | Noah Broestl | Martin Doff-Sotta | Aleksandar Shtedritski | Yuki M Asano

Hateful memes pose a unique challenge for current machine learning systems because their message is derived from both text- and visual-modalities. To this effect, Facebook released the Hateful Memes Challenge, a dataset of memes with pre-extracted text captions, but it is unclear whether these synthetic examples generalize to ‘memes in the wild’. In this paper, we collect hateful and non-hateful memes from Pinterest to evaluate out-of-sample performance on models pre-trained on the Facebook dataset. We find that ‘memes in the wild’ differ in two key aspects: 1) Captions must be extracted via OCR, injecting noise and diminishing performance of multimodal models, and 2) Memes are more diverse than ‘traditional memes’, including screenshots of conversations or text on a plain background. This paper thus serves as a reality-check for the current benchmark of hateful meme detection and its applicability for detecting real world hate.

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Measuring and Improving Model-Moderator Collaboration using Uncertainty Estimation
Ian Kivlichan | Zi Lin | Jeremiah Liu | Lucy Vasserman

Content moderation is often performed by a collaboration between humans and machine learning models. However, it is not well understood how to design the collaborative process so as to maximize the combined moderator-model system performance. This work presents a rigorous study of this problem, focusing on an approach that incorporates model uncertainty into the collaborative process. First, we introduce principled metrics to describe the performance of the collaborative system under capacity constraints on the human moderator, quantifying how efficiently the combined system utilizes human decisions. Using these metrics, we conduct a large benchmark study evaluating the performance of state-of-the-art uncertainty models under different collaborative review strategies. We find that an uncertainty-based strategy consistently outperforms the widely used strategy based on toxicity scores, and moreover that the choice of review strategy drastically changes the overall system performance. Our results demonstrate the importance of rigorous metrics for understanding and developing effective moderator-model systems for content moderation, as well as the utility of uncertainty estimation in this domain.

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DALC: the Dutch Abusive Language Corpus
Tommaso Caselli | Arjan Schelhaas | Marieke Weultjes | Folkert Leistra | Hylke van der Veen | Gerben Timmerman | Malvina Nissim

As socially unacceptable language become pervasive in social media platforms, the need for automatic content moderation become more pressing. This contribution introduces the Dutch Abusive Language Corpus (DALC v1.0), a new dataset with tweets manually an- notated for abusive language. The resource ad- dress a gap in language resources for Dutch and adopts a multi-layer annotation scheme modeling the explicitness and the target of the abusive messages. Baselines experiments on all annotation layers have been conducted, achieving a macro F1 score of 0.748 for binary classification of the explicitness layer and .489 for target classification.

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Offensive Language Detection in Nepali Social Media
Nobal B. Niraula | Saurab Dulal | Diwa Koirala

Social media texts such as blog posts, comments, and tweets often contain offensive languages including racial hate speech comments, personal attacks, and sexual harassment. Detecting inappropriate use of language is, therefore, of utmost importance for the safety of the users as well as for suppressing hateful conduct and aggression. Existing approaches to this problem are mostly available for resource-rich languages such as English and German. In this paper, we characterize the offensive language in Nepali, a low-resource language, highlighting the challenges that need to be addressed for processing Nepali social media text. We also present experiments for detecting offensive language using supervised machine learning. Besides contributing the first baseline approaches of detecting offensive language in Nepali, we also release human annotated data sets to encourage future research on this crucial topic.

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MIN_PT: An European Portuguese Lexicon for Minorities Related Terms
Paula Fortuna | Vanessa Cortez | Miguel Sozinho Ramalho | Laura Pérez-Mayos

Hate speech-related lexicons have been proved to be useful for many tasks such as data collection and classification. However, existing Portuguese lexicons do not distinguish between European and Brazilian Portuguese, and do not include neutral terms that are potentially useful to detect a broader spectrum of content referring to minorities. In this work, we present MIN_PT, a new European Portuguese Lexicon for Minorities-Related Terms specifically designed to tackle the limitations of existing resources. We describe the data collection and annotation process, discuss the limitation and ethical concerns, and prove the utility of the resource by applying it to a use case for the Portuguese 2021 presidential elections.

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Fine-Grained Fairness Analysis of Abusive Language Detection Systems with CheckList
Marta Marchiori Manerba | Sara Tonelli

Current abusive language detection systems have demonstrated unintended bias towards sensitive features such as nationality or gender. This is a crucial issue, which may harm minorities and underrepresented groups if such systems were integrated in real-world applications. In this paper, we create ad hoc tests through the CheckList tool (Ribeiro et al., 2020) to detect biases within abusive language classifiers for English. We compare the behaviour of two BERT-based models, one trained on a generic hate speech dataset and the other on a dataset for misogyny detection. Our evaluation shows that, although BERT-based classifiers achieve high accuracy levels on a variety of natural language processing tasks, they perform very poorly as regards fairness and bias, in particular on samples involving implicit stereotypes, expressions of hate towards minorities and protected attributes such as race or sexual orientation. We release both the notebooks implemented to extend the Fairness tests and the synthetic datasets usable to evaluate systems bias independently of CheckList.

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Improving Counterfactual Generation for Fair Hate Speech Detection
Aida Mostafazadeh Davani | Ali Omrani | Brendan Kennedy | Mohammad Atari | Xiang Ren | Morteza Dehghani

Bias mitigation approaches reduce models’ dependence on sensitive features of data, such as social group tokens (SGTs), resulting in equal predictions across the sensitive features. In hate speech detection, however, equalizing model predictions may ignore important differences among targeted social groups, as hate speech can contain stereotypical language specific to each SGT. Here, to take the specific language about each SGT into account, we rely on counterfactual fairness and equalize predictions among counterfactuals, generated by changing the SGTs. Our method evaluates the similarity in sentence likelihoods (via pre-trained language models) among counterfactuals, to treat SGTs equally only within interchangeable contexts. By applying logit pairing to equalize outcomes on the restricted set of counterfactuals for each instance, we improve fairness metrics while preserving model performance on hate speech detection.

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Hell Hath No Fury? Correcting Bias in the NRC Emotion Lexicon
Samira Zad | Joshuan Jimenez | Mark Finlayson

There have been several attempts to create an accurate and thorough emotion lexicon in English, which identifies the emotional content of words. Of the several commonly used resources, the NRC emotion lexicon (Mohammad and Turney, 2013b) has received the most attention due to its availability, size, and its choice of Plutchik’s expressive 8-class emotion model. In this paper we identify a large number of troubling entries in the NRC lexicon, where words that should in most contexts be emotionally neutral, with no affect (e.g., ‘lesbian’, ‘stone’, ‘mountain’), are associated with emotional labels that are inaccurate, nonsensical, pejorative, or, at best, highly contingent and context-dependent (e.g., ‘lesbian’ labeled as Disgust and Sadness, ‘stone’ as Anger, or ‘mountain’ as Anticipation). We describe a procedure for semi-automatically correcting these problems in the NRC, which includes disambiguating POS categories and aligning NRC entries with other emotion lexicons to infer the accuracy of labels. We demonstrate via an experimental benchmark that the quality of the resources is thus improved. We release the revised resource and our code to enable other researchers to reproduce and build upon results.

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Mitigating Biases in Toxic Language Detection through Invariant Rationalization
Yung-Sung Chuang | Mingye Gao | Hongyin Luo | James Glass | Hung-yi Lee | Yun-Nung Chen | Shang-Wen Li

Automatic detection of toxic language plays an essential role in protecting social media users, especially minority groups, from verbal abuse. However, biases toward some attributes, including gender, race, and dialect, exist in most training datasets for toxicity detection. The biases make the learned models unfair and can even exacerbate the marginalization of people. Considering that current debiasing methods for general natural language understanding tasks cannot effectively mitigate the biases in the toxicity detectors, we propose to use invariant rationalization (InvRat), a game-theoretic framework consisting of a rationale generator and a predictor, to rule out the spurious correlation of certain syntactic patterns (e.g., identity mentions, dialect) to toxicity labels. We empirically show that our method yields lower false positive rate in both lexical and dialectal attributes than previous debiasing methods.

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Fine-grained Classification of Political Bias in German News: A Data Set and Initial Experiments
Dmitrii Aksenov | Peter Bourgonje | Karolina Zaczynska | Malte Ostendorff | Julian Moreno-Schneider | Georg Rehm

We present a data set consisting of German news articles labeled for political bias on a five-point scale in a semi-supervised way. While earlier work on hyperpartisan news detection uses binary classification (i.e., hyperpartisan or not) and English data, we argue for a more fine-grained classification, covering the full political spectrum (i.e., far-left, left, centre, right, far-right) and for extending research to German data. Understanding political bias helps in accurately detecting hate speech and online abuse. We experiment with different classification methods for political bias detection. Their comparatively low performance (a macro-F1 of 43 for our best setup, compared to a macro-F1 of 79 for the binary classification task) underlines the need for more (balanced) data annotated in a fine-grained way.

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Jibes & Delights: A Dataset of Targeted Insults and Compliments to Tackle Online Abuse
Ravsimar Sodhi | Kartikey Pant | Radhika Mamidi

Online abuse and offensive language on social media have become widespread problems in today’s digital age. In this paper, we contribute a Reddit-based dataset, consisting of 68,159 insults and 51,102 compliments targeted at individuals instead of targeting a particular community or race. Secondly, we benchmark multiple existing state-of-the-art models for both classification and unsupervised style transfer on the dataset. Finally, we analyse the experimental results and conclude that the transfer task is challenging, requiring the models to understand the high degree of creativity exhibited in the data.

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Context Sensitivity Estimation in Toxicity Detection
Alexandros Xenos | John Pavlopoulos | Ion Androutsopoulos

User posts whose perceived toxicity depends on the conversational context are rare in current toxicity detection datasets. Hence, toxicity detectors trained on current datasets will also disregard context, making the detection of context-sensitive toxicity a lot harder when it occurs. We constructed and publicly release a dataset of 10k posts with two kinds of toxicity labels per post, obtained from annotators who considered (i) both the current post and the previous one as context, or (ii) only the current post. We introduce a new task, context-sensitivity estimation, which aims to identify posts whose perceived toxicity changes if the context (previous post) is also considered. Using the new dataset, we show that systems can be developed for this task. Such systems could be used to enhance toxicity detection datasets with more context-dependent posts or to suggest when moderators should consider the parent posts, which may not always be necessary and may introduce additional costs.

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A Large-Scale English Multi-Label Twitter Dataset for Cyberbullying and Online Abuse Detection
Semiu Salawu | Jo Lumsden | Yulan He

In this paper, we introduce a new English Twitter-based dataset for cyberbullying detection and online abuse. Comprising 62,587 tweets, this dataset was sourced from Twitter using specific query terms designed to retrieve tweets with high probabilities of various forms of bullying and offensive content, including insult, trolling, profanity, sarcasm, threat, porn and exclusion. We recruited a pool of 17 annotators to perform fine-grained annotation on the dataset with each tweet annotated by three annotators. All our annotators are high school educated and frequent users of social media. Inter-rater agreement for the dataset as measured by Krippendorff’s Alpha is 0.67. Analysis performed on the dataset confirmed common cyberbullying themes reported by other studies and revealed interesting relationships between the classes. The dataset was used to train a number of transformer-based deep learning models returning impressive results.

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Data Integration for Toxic Comment Classification: Making More Than 40 Datasets Easily Accessible in One Unified Format
Julian Risch | Philipp Schmidt | Ralf Krestel

With the rise of research on toxic comment classification, more and more annotated datasets have been released. The wide variety of the task (different languages, different labeling processes and schemes) has led to a large amount of heterogeneous datasets that can be used for training and testing very specific settings. Despite recent efforts to create web pages that provide an overview, most publications still use only a single dataset. They are not stored in one central database, they come in many different data formats and it is difficult to interpret their class labels and how to reuse these labels in other projects. To overcome these issues, we present a collection of more than thirty datasets in the form of a software tool that automatizes downloading and processing of the data and presents them in a unified data format that also offers a mapping of compatible class labels. Another advantage of that tool is that it gives an overview of properties of available datasets, such as different languages, platforms, and class labels to make it easier to select suitable training and test data.

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When the Echo Chamber Shatters: Examining the Use of Community-Specific Language Post-Subreddit Ban
Milo Trujillo | Sam Rosenblatt | Guillermo de Anda Jáuregui | Emily Moog | Briane Paul V. Samson | Laurent Hébert-Dufresne | Allison M. Roth

Community-level bans are a common tool against groups that enable online harassment and harmful speech. Unfortunately, the efficacy of community bans has only been partially studied and with mixed results. Here, we provide a flexible unsupervised methodology to identify in-group language and track user activity on Reddit both before and after the ban of a community (subreddit). We use a simple word frequency divergence to identify uncommon words overrepresented in a given community, not as a proxy for harmful speech but as a linguistic signature of the community. We apply our method to 15 banned subreddits, and find that community response is heterogeneous between subreddits and between users of a subreddit. Top users were more likely to become less active overall, while random users often reduced use of in-group language without decreasing activity. Finally, we find some evidence that the effectiveness of bans aligns with the content of a community. Users of dark humor communities were largely unaffected by bans while users of communities organized around white supremacy and fascism were the most affected. Altogether, our results show that bans do not affect all groups or users equally, and pave the way to understanding the effect of bans across communities.

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Targets and Aspects in Social Media Hate Speech
Alexander Shvets | Paula Fortuna | Juan Soler | Leo Wanner

Mainstream research on hate speech focused so far predominantly on the task of classifying mainly social media posts with respect to predefined typologies of rather coarse-grained hate speech categories. This may be sufficient if the goal is to detect and delete abusive language posts. However, removal is not always possible due to the legislation of a country. Also, there is evidence that hate speech cannot be successfully combated by merely removing hate speech posts; they should be countered by education and counter-narratives. For this purpose, we need to identify (i) who is the target in a given hate speech post, and (ii) what aspects (or characteristics) of the target are attributed to the target in the post. As the first approximation, we propose to adapt a generic state-of-the-art concept extraction model to the hate speech domain. The outcome of the experiments is promising and can serve as inspiration for further work on the task

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Abusive Language on Social Media Through the Legal Looking Glass
Thales Bertaglia | Andreea Grigoriu | Michel Dumontier | Gijs van Dijck

Abusive language is a growing phenomenon on social media platforms. Its effects can reach beyond the online context, contributing to mental or emotional stress on users. Automatic tools for detecting abuse can alleviate the issue. In practice, developing automated methods to detect abusive language relies on good quality data. However, there is currently a lack of standards for creating datasets in the field. These standards include definitions of what is considered abusive language, annotation guidelines and reporting on the process. This paper introduces an annotation framework inspired by legal concepts to define abusive language in the context of online harassment. The framework uses a 7-point Likert scale for labelling instead of class labels. We also present ALYT – a dataset of Abusive Language on YouTube. ALYT includes YouTube comments in English extracted from videos on different controversial topics and labelled by Law students. The comments were sampled from the actual collected data, without artificial methods for increasing the abusive content. The paper describes the annotation process thoroughly, including all its guidelines and training steps.

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Findings of the WOAH 5 Shared Task on Fine Grained Hateful Memes Detection
Lambert Mathias | Shaoliang Nie | Aida Mostafazadeh Davani | Douwe Kiela | Vinodkumar Prabhakaran | Bertie Vidgen | Zeerak Waseem

We present the results and main findings of the shared task at WOAH 5 on hateful memes detection. The task include two subtasks relating to distinct challenges in the fine-grained detection of hateful memes: (1) the protected category attacked by the meme and (2) the attack type. 3 teams submitted system description papers. This shared task builds on the hateful memes detection task created by Facebook AI Research in 2020.

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VL-BERT+: Detecting Protected Groups in Hateful Multimodal Memes
Piush Aggarwal | Michelle Espranita Liman | Darina Gold | Torsten Zesch

This paper describes our submission (winning solution for Task A) to the Shared Task on Hateful Meme Detection at WOAH 2021. We build our system on top of a state-of-the-art system for binary hateful meme classification that already uses image tags such as race, gender, and web entities. We add further metadata such as emotions and experiment with data augmentation techniques, as hateful instances are underrepresented in the data set.

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Racist or Sexist Meme? Classifying Memes beyond Hateful
Haris Bin Zia | Ignacio Castro | Gareth Tyson

Memes are the combinations of text and images that are often humorous in nature. But, that may not always be the case, and certain combinations of texts and images may depict hate, referred to as hateful memes. This work presents a multimodal pipeline that takes both visual and textual features from memes into account to (1) identify the protected category (e.g. race, sex etc.) that has been attacked; and (2) detect the type of attack (e.g. contempt, slurs etc.). Our pipeline uses state-of-the-art pre-trained visual and textual representations, followed by a simple logistic regression classifier. We employ our pipeline on the Hateful Memes Challenge dataset with additional newly created fine-grained labels for protected category and type of attack. Our best model achieves an AUROC of 0.96 for identifying the protected category, and 0.97 for detecting the type of attack. We release our code at https://github.com/harisbinzia/HatefulMemes

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Multimodal or Text? Retrieval or BERT? Benchmarking Classifiers for the Shared Task on Hateful Memes
Vasiliki Kougia | John Pavlopoulos

The Shared Task on Hateful Memes is a challenge that aims at the detection of hateful content in memes by inviting the implementation of systems that understand memes, potentially by combining image and textual information. The challenge consists of three detection tasks: hate, protected category and attack type. The first is a binary classification task, while the other two are multi-label classification tasks. Our participation included a text-based BERT baseline (TxtBERT), the same but adding information from the image (ImgBERT), and neural retrieval approaches. We also experimented with retrieval augmented classification models. We found that an ensemble of TxtBERT and ImgBERT achieves the best performance in terms of ROC AUC score in two out of the three tasks on our development set.